cephalopod

Reproduction and life cycles

The sexes are usually separate in the Cephalopoda. Sexual dimorphism is usually expressed in slight differences of size and in the proportions of various parts. In the argonaut and the blanket octopus (Tremoctopus) the males differ in appearance and size from the females.

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The female reproductive system is simple, consisting of the posterior ovary and paired oviducts. Nidamental glands exist in species that lay eggs encased in heavy gelatinous capsules.

In males the reproductive system contains a series of chambers or sacs along the course of the vas deferens, which produce long tubes (spermatophores) to contain the spermatozoa. The final sac (Needham’s organ) is used for storage of spermatophores. The spermatophores are complicated, containing sperm reservoir, cement body, cap, and a delicate triggering mechanism for releasing the tube and cementing it to the female’s body, where the sperm are released when the eggs are mature and ready to be laid. Since spermatophores vary in appearance from species to species, they are important taxonomic characters.

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During courtship the male deposits spermatophores in the female, either within the mantle cavity or on a pad below the mouth, by means of a specially modified arm, the hectocotylus. The hectocotylized arm of Octopus bears a deep groove on one side, ending in a spoonlike terminal organ. In Argonauta and Tremoctopus the arm is highly modified and in mating is autotomized (self-amputated) and left within the mantle cavity of the female. In the squids a much larger section of the arm may be modified; often the suckers are degenerate and the distal half of the arm bears rows of slender papillae, although special pouches and flaps may often be found. The modified arm of Nautilus is termed the spadix.

Little is known about the mating habits of most cephalopods. In the common octopus the male and female remain some distance apart while the male caresses the female with the tip of the hectocotylized arm. The male then inserts the tip of the arm into the mantle cavity of the female, where it remains for more than an hour, during which time the spermatophores travel down the spermatophoral groove of the arm. In the cuttlefish (Sepia), according to the Dutch zoologist L. Tinbergen, the pair swims side by side, the male indulging in some courtship behaviour with its arms. Eventually, mating takes place by the pair intertwining their arms and remaining together while the spermatophores are placed on the inner side of the female’s mouth membrane. In loliginid squids a somewhat similar type of mating occurs, except that it takes place en masse in schools of thousands of individuals.

Eggs may be laid shortly after mating or after a prolonged period of maturation during which time the sperm remain viable. In loliginids they are fertilized as they are ejected and before being fixed in the egg capsule. In the octopods they may be fertilized as they pass through oviductal glands near the end of the oviduct. In cuttlefishes the eggs are fertilized before the heavy capsule is formed. Egg laying in octopods is accomplished by the female individually fixing the eggs singly or in festoons by a short stalk or thread. In loliginids the eggs in fingerlike capsules often form immense moplike patches, the result of the communal spawning of perhaps hundreds of individuals. Spawning of oceanic squids is very poorly known. The number of eggs laid during a spawning period varies greatly; it may range from only a few dozen in octopuses with large eggs to more than 100,000 in the common octopus, laid over a period of about two weeks. In cuttlefishes the number of eggs is smaller, about 200 to 300 being laid in a season. In loliginids several thousand eggs may be laid by a single female, and the egg mop of the European common squid, resulting from the efforts of many individuals, may contain more than 40,000 eggs.

The eggs of most cephalopods are enclosed within a capsule that may be gelatinous and transparent (the squids of the genus Loligo) or opaque and leathery (Octopus and cuttlefishes). The eggs of oceanic species may be laid in large sausagelike gelatinous masses or singly. The eggs of most coastal species are laid inshore and are attached singly or in clusters, primarily to rocks and shells on the bottom. Parental care is exhibited by some octopuses, in which the female broods over the eggs in the den, and in the argonaut (Argonauta), in which the eggs are carried in a special shell secreted by the female. In most squids and cuttlefishes the eggs are left uncared-for. Squids that attach their eggs to the bottom engulf them in a gelatinous mass that protects them from disease and deters predators. Cuttlefishes squirt their eggs with ink when they are laid to camouflage the otherwise white eggs.

All cephalopod eggs have a remarkable amount of yolk, unlike that in the rest of the Mollusca, so that segmentation is incomplete and restricted to one end of the egg, where the embryo develops. The embryo of a cuttlefish (Sepia), squid (Loligo), or octopus (Octopus) has a yolk sac. In certain presumably archaic Teuthoidea there is less yolk, and the yolk sac is nearly absent. Development of the embryo is direct, without the distinctive larval stages and metamorphoses that occur in other mollusks.

Incubation time varies, but in Octopus young hatch in about 50 days and in Loligo in about 40 days. At hatching, the young may closely resemble the adult and assume the adult habitat or they may differ from the adult and spend a considerable time in the plankton as part of the drifting life. The juveniles of many cephalopods were described as distinct genera before their juvenile status was discovered. In octopods with small eggs (e.g., Octopus vulgaris) the juveniles are planktonic, spending several weeks in the plankton; the “Macrotritopus” stage of Scaeurgus may greatly prolong its juvenile life until a favourable bottom substrate is found. In octopods with large eggs (e.g., Octopus briareus) the young resemble the adult and immediately assume a bottom-dwelling mode of life.

In the order Sepioidea (cuttlefishes and bottle-tailed squids) the young closely resemble the adults and are only briefly planktonic. In the Teuthoidea (squids), especially the Oegopsida, the larvae may differ widely from the adult and the juvenile period may be quite long.

Little is known about the life span of cephalopods. Studies have shown that in Octopus joubini raised from the egg in aquariums, sexual maturity and spawning were reached in five months; in a loliginid squid (Sepioteuthis sepioidea), likewise raised from the egg, sexual maturity and full growth were also attained in five months. It thus appears that the smaller inshore species may have a life span of no more than one year or, exceptionally, two or three. Nothing is known of the life span of the large oceanic squids, but it is presumed that giants such as Architeuthis attain their bulk only after a period of perhaps four to five years. In the smaller octopuses and squids, observational data indicate that many of the males die after mating and females after the first major spawning.

Behaviour

Cephalopods are unique among the invertebrates in the degree of cephalization and cerebralization attained. The uniting of the major ganglionic centres of the central nervous system constitutes a brain of considerable complexity. Studies undertaken at the Zoological Station in Naples by the British zoologists J.Z. Young, Martin J. Wells, and others have demonstrated that Octopus is capable of learning and has considerable intelligence. The behaviour of squids and octopuses differs considerably because of their different modes of life. Laboratory behavioral studies have dealt mainly with learning processes and have centred around food acceptance, reward and punishment, maze work, and shape discrimination. By means of surgical techniques it has been possible to determine the various functional centres of the brain of Octopus and the transmission and receiving pathways.

In addition, field studies in tropical seas near Indonesia have recorded tool-using behaviour in the veined octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus). In 2009 biologists reported having observed the animals excavating coconut half shells from the ocean floor and carrying them for use as portable shelters. Such behaviour is regarded as the first documented example of tool use by an invertebrate.

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Research of a detailed nature has also been concerned with colour change. Most cephalopods possess colour pigment cells (chromatophores) and reflecting cells (iridocytes) in the skin. The chromatophores are expanded by nerves controlled by the brain, and the colours are exposed (brown, black, red, yellow, or orange red). Colours and colour patterns are exhibited according to specific behavioral conditions—e.g., attack on prey, camouflage, rest, and alarm or defense. Alarm patterns are the most readily recognized, consisting of strong contrasting light and dark areas, bars and peripheral dark outlines, or vivid displays of spots, like huge eyes.

Other behavioral patterns are found in changes in skin texture, including the erection of branched or spikelike papillae and curling of the arms. These actions often are attempts by cephalopods to conceal or camouflage themselves through imitating bottom objects such as sand, coral, or seaweed.

The ink of cephalopods is used for both defense and escape. In Octopus under attack by a moray eel, the cloud of ink seems to paralyze for some time the eel’s senses of sight and smell. In squids the ink is ejected as a spindle-shaped mass about the size of the squid itself, the ink coagulating in the water. With this “dummy” left behind, the squid contracts its chromatophores, becomes nearly transparent, and jets away.

Many cephalopods (but not Nautilus and Octopus) possess special light organs (photophores), which emit chemical light or bioluminescence. Light is produced by the enzymatic reaction of luciferin and luciferase or, in bottle-tailed squids (sepiolids), indirectly, through cultures of luminescent bacteria. Photophores distributed over the body are employed at night or in the mid depths in various ways: mating play, recognition of the sexes, aid in schooling, attracting prey, defense, and camouflage. The light organs of the squid Histioteuthis are highly complicated, consisting of reflector, light source, directive muscles, lens, diaphragm, window, and colour screens.

Octopuses, squids, and cuttlefishes display considerable skill and cunning in hunting, stalking patiently, or luring prey within reach of their arms or tentacles. Both cuttlefishes and octopuses may use the tips of their arms as wormlike lures to attract small fishes, and octopuses have been reported to thrust stones between the valves of clams to prevent their closing. This has not been verified by later observers, but such intelligence is not beyond belief.

Locomotion

Cephalopods move by crawling, swimming, or jet propulsion, mainly the latter. The mantle, which has a passive role in the majority of mollusks, has become involved in locomotion in cephalopods, having almost entirely lost its rigid shell and become highly muscular. Its expansion and contraction produce a locomotory water current by drawing water into the mantle cavity and expelling it through the funnel. The rapid ejection of this jet of water enables the animal to execute quick backward and forward movements.

Water is drawn into the mantle cavity by the relaxation of the circular muscles and resultant expansion of the mantle. It enters around the neck region or aperture of the mantle (through the funnel in some deep-sea octopuses). In the oceanic squids the system is more efficient, with a nonreturn valve that prevents water from entering the wrong way through the funnel. When the mantle is contracted the aperture is closed by locking mechanisms and contraction of the anterior ring muscle, and the water is forced out through the funnel. This flexible tube is constructed similarly to a jet nozzle and may be turned in any direction, giving the animal great flexibility of motion for steering.

Squids also possess terminal or lateral fins used in slow movement or hovering. Locomotion is by the rapid undulation of the outer edges of the fins. Movement through the water is aided by lateral expansions (swimming keels) on the outer surface of the third pair of arms. Some squids (Onychoteuthis, Thysanoteuthis) are able to “fly” for several hundred feet, driven into the air by powerful thrusts from their jets and gliding on their expanded fins and arm keels. This normally occurs when the squids are pursued by predatory fishes and dolphins. When the squid jets rapidly through the water, the fins are often curled tightly around the mantle. Cuttlefishes, because of the large cuttlebone, are less active animals and spend most of their life lying on or hovering slightly above the bottom. Both jet and fins are used, the latter more frequently.

The benthic octopods are bottom crawlers, gliding about the bottom and in and out of crannies with amazing agility through the use of their eight arms and hundreds of suckers. Because of the extraordinary flexibility of the body, they are able to pass through openings hardly larger than the diameter of one eye. When disturbed, octopods swim rapidly by jet propulsion. Mass swimming migrations have been reported.

The finned octopods and the bottle-tailed squids have paddle-shaped fins that probably are most useful for hovering and slow swimming. The female argonaut (Argonauta) propels herself by jet propulsion while encased in her paper-thin shell. The chambered nautilus (Nautilus) is a less active swimmer, partly due to the inefficient funnel, which is composed of two flaps instead of a single fused tube, and to a reduced mantle cavity.

The active swimmers and most bottom dwellers apparently possess no hydrostatic organ. The cuttlefish, however, which swims or hovers above the bottom or rests on the bottom, adjusts its buoyancy through the amount of gases contained in the porous cuttlebone. Nautilus, which swims slowly above the bottom or in midwater, accomplishes this similarly, adjusting the gases in the chambered shell. Inactive oceanic squids, such as some cranchiids, concentrate ions lighter than seawater in the body chamber, while others, such as Bathyteuthis, concentrate buoyant oil in the chambers associated with the digestive gland.

Ecology

The Cephalopoda are exclusively marine animals. There are numerous littoral species, but few have been reported from brackish water except for the squid Lolliguncula brevis, which occurs along the Florida coast in bays where the salinity is as low as 8.5 parts per thousand (about one-fourth that of the open ocean). Cephalopods are excluded from the Baltic Sea by lower salinities but have been found in areas of the Suez Canal where salinities are higher than in the oceans. There is some evidence that in parts of the open sea that differ only slightly in salinity there may be a varying cephalopod fauna. Grace E. Pickford, an American zoologist, has found that the vertical distribution of young in Vampyroteuthis is governed by water density, and, according to the American zoologist Clyde F.E. Roper, a similar situation exists in the deep-sea squid Bathyteuthis.

The Coleoidea are carnivorous and live principally on other cephalopods, crustaceans, mollusks, and small fishes. In the food cycle of the squid Illex, in which the adults feed upon young mackerel and the adult mackerel feed upon young squid. Squids also are cannibalistic. Octopus feeds upon bivalve mollusks and on decapod crustaceans, sometimes causing severe losses to the lobster fishery by entering the traps and eating the captive lobsters. The smaller oceanic squids probably feed primarily upon small fish, copepods, heteropods, and caridean shrimp. The Cirrata, which have reduced musculature and radula, indicating reduced activity and masticatory power, probably feed on bottom dwellers or small plankton.

The Cephalopoda are fed upon by many marine mammals, large fish, and seabirds. Sperm whales and other toothed whales feed primarily on squids.

The 19th-century French naturalist Alcide d’Orbigny asserted that the Cephalopoda are in general sociable, and this statement is certainly true of Nautilus, which are found together in large numbers. Some authorities, studying the Mediterranean cephalopods, have concluded that only certain pelagic cephalopods are gregarious (Todarodes, Ocythoe). Schools of the large oceanic squid Thysanoteuthis rhombis have been reported at Madeira. Although there is no proof that numbers constitute gregariousness, octopus colonies have been reported.

The breeding season has a marked effect on the local distribution of certain cephalopods. The common cuttlefish comes into shallow water in the spring and summer to breed, and similar migrations have been observed in some squids (Loligo, Alloteuthis, Illex).

The geographic distribution of cephalopods is incompletely known. Some open-ocean pelagic and bathypelagic forms are cosmopolitan in warm and temperate waters (Onychoteuthis banksi, Cranchia scabra). Others may be limited by genera to particular oceans or to continental waters. Even some species of bathypelagic habitat are limited to one ocean. The Octopoda, as a result of their bottom-dwelling habits, show stronger restrictions in their distribution, but Octopus vulgaris and O. macropus, both species with planktonic larvae, have gained worldwide distribution. In general, the pelagic and planktonic cephalopods conform in their distribution to other pelagic animals.

The vertical distribution is also incompletely known. Nautilus moves vertically through the water, living near the bottom, and has been obtained at a depth of about 550 metres (1,800 feet). It is fished in the Philippines when it comes into shallow water. Of the cuttlefishes, the Sepiidae are littoral, whereas the Sepiolidae dwell on or near the bottom, down to considerable depths. Among the squids the Myopsida are coastal forms, whereas the Oegopsida are oceanic, living from the surface to depths in excess of 5,000 metres (16,400 feet). The Octopoda occur from the surface of the open ocean (Tremoctopus) to the ocean floor (Pareledone, Bentheledone, Cirroteuthis) in excess of 5,000 metres (16,400 feet); most are bottom-dwelling forms restricted to the continental shelf and its slope.