Wood-block prints
A movement that paralleled and occasionally intersected with the aforementioned developments in painting was that of the production of ukiyo-e, or “pictures of the floating world,” which depicted the buoyant, fleeting pleasures of the common people. This specialized area of visual representation was born in the late 16th and early 17th centuries as part of a widespread interest in representing aspects of burgeoning urban life. Depictions of the brothel quarters and Kabuki theatre dominated the subject matter of ukiyo-e until the early 19th century, when landscape and bird-and-flower subjects became popular. These subjects were represented in both painting and wood-block print form.
Wood-block printing had been a comparatively inexpensive method of reproducing image and text monopolized by the Buddhist establishment for purposes of proselytization since the 8th century. For more than 800 years no other single societal trend or movement had demonstrated a need for this relatively simple technology. Thus, in the first half of the 17th century, painters were the principal interpreters of the demimonde. The print format was used primarily for production of erotica and inexpensive illustrated novellas, reflecting the generally low regard in which print art was held. This perhaps resulted from the idea that the artist, when creating a painting, was essentially the producer and master of his own work. However, when engaged in wood-block print production, the artist was more accurately classified as the designer, who had been commissioned and was often directly supervised by the publisher, usually the impresario of a studio or other commercial enterprise.
The simplest prints were made from ink monochrome drawings, on which the artist sometimes noted suggestions for colour. The design was transferred by a skilled carver to a cherry or boxwood block and carved in relief. A printer made impressions on paper from the inked block, and the individual prints could then be hand-coloured if desired. Printing in multiple colours required more blocks and a precise printing method so that registration would match exactly from block to block. Additional flourishes such as the use of mica, precious metals, and embossing further complicated the task. Thus, while the themes and images of the floating world varied little whether in painting or print, the production method for prints involved many more anonymous and critical talents than those of the artist-designer whose name was usually printed on the single sheet, and the mass-produced prints were considered relatively disposable despite the high level of artistry that was frequently achieved. Nevertheless, with the exponential increase in literacy in the early Edo period and with the vast new patronage for images of the floating world—a clientele and subject matter not previously serviced by any of the traditional ateliers—mass production was necessary, and new schools and new techniques responded to the market.
In the last quarter of the 17th century, bold ink monochrome prints with limited hand-colouring began to appear. The Insistent Lover by Sugimura Jihei provides an excellent example of the lush and complex mood achievable with the medium. Within a seemingly uncomplicated composition Jihei represents a tipsy brothel guest lunging for a courtesan while an attendant averts her eyes. This scene, likely played out hundreds of times each evening in the urban licensed quarters, skillfully suggests the multileveled social games, including feigned shock and artful humouring of the insistent guest, that prevailed in the floating world. This print too, with an almost naive representational quality, is an example of the generally straightforward, exuberant mood of the times in regard to the necessary indulgences.
From the late 17th until the mid-18th century, except for some stylistic changes and the addition of a few printed rather than hand-applied colours, print production remained basically unchanged. The technical capacity to produce full-colour, or polychrome, prints (nishiki-e, “brocade pictures”) was known but so labour-intensive as to be uneconomical until the 1760s, when Suzuki Harunobu, whose patrons were within the shogun’s circle, was commissioned to produce a so-called calendar print. Calendar manufacture was a government monopoly, but privately produced works were common. Seeking to avert any censorship, the private calendars were disguised within innocent-looking pictures. Harunobu’s young woman rescuing a garment from the line as a shower bursts is an example of the technique. The ideograms for the year 1765 are part of the hanging kimono’s pattern. More importantly, the work is a full-colour print. Even though it was commissioned for limited distribution, it excited general audiences to the possibilities of expanding the repertoire and appearance of wood-block prints. Harunobu’s productions, through the end of the decade, elegantly suggested the new possibilities. His work so raised the level of consumer expectation that publishers began to enter full-colour production on the assumption that consumption levels would outweigh production costs. Not all prints were produced with the subtlety and care of Harunobu’s, but the turn in taste toward full-colour prints, of whatever quality, was irreversible.
The last quarter of the 18th century was the heyday of the classic ukiyo-e themes: the fashionable beauty and the actor. Katsukawa Shunshō and his pupils dominated the actor print genre. His innovative images clearly portrayed actors not as interchangeable bodies with masks but as distinctive personalities whose postures and colourfully made-up faces were easily recognizable to the viewer. Masters at portraying feminine beauty included Torii Kiyonaga and Kitagawa Utamaro. Both idealized the female form, observing it in virtually all its poses, casual and formal. Utamaro’s bust portraits, while hardly meeting a Western definition of portraiture, were remarkable in the emotional moods they conveyed. A mysterious artist active under the name of Tōshūsai Sharaku produced stunning actor images from 1794 to 1795, but little else is known of him.
At the close of the 18th century, a palpable tightening of government censorship control and perhaps a shift in public interest from the intense introspection provided by artists of the demimonde forced publishers to search for other subject matter. Landscape became a theme of increasing interest. In Edo the artist Katsushika Hokusai, who as a young man trained with Katsukawa Shunshō, broke with the atelier system and experimented successfully with new subjects and styles. In the 1820s and ’30s, when he was already a man of some age, Hokusai created the hugely popular print series Thirty-six Views of Mt. Fuji. Andō Hiroshige followed with another landscape-travelogue series, Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō, which offered scenes of the towns and way stations on the central highway connecting Edo and Kyōto. Both these and other artists capitalized on public interest in scenes of distant places. These landscape prints in some way assuaged the restrictive travel codes enforced by the shogunate and allowed viewers imaginative journeys.
Hokusai was also an important painter. His energetic rendering of the thunder god is a fine example of the quirky and amusing quality of his figural painting. A characteristic swiftly modulating brush defines the figure, and light cast from an unseen source, perhaps lightning, allows for a play of light and shadow over the figure to model a sense of body volume. All the more remarkable is the fact that Hokusai was in his 88th year when he painted this vigorous work.
Hiroshige painted as well, but his legacy is a vast number of prints celebrating scenes of a Japan soon to vanish. His View from Komagata Temple near Azuma Bridge is part of a series of 100 views of Edo. It demonstrates Hiroshige’s finely honed abilities to effect atmosphere. The appearance of the cuckoo screeching in the sky alludes to classical poetry associated with late spring and early summer, as well as to unrequited love, while the tiny figures and the red flag of the cosmetics vendor suggest the transitory nature of life and beauty.
The depiction of famous views allowed for their idealization and also for important experiments with composition. Fragmentary foreground elements were used effectively to frame a distant view, a point of view adopted by some European painters after their study of 19th-century Japanese prints. Ironically, in their return to landscape and flora and fauna subjects, Japanese print arts revived the metaphoric vehicles of personal expression so familiar to the classic Japanese and Chinese painting traditions.
Although the time-tested themes of erotica, brothel, and theatre continued to be represented in 19th-century prints, an emerging taste for gothic and grotesque subjects found ample audiences as well. Historical themes were also popular, especially those that could be interpreted as critiques of contemporary politics. Ukiyo-e prints seemed to have been transformed from a celebration of pleasure to a means of widely distributing observations on social and political events. As the century closed, the print form, while active, was subsumed by the development of the newspaper illustration. This new form served many of the same purposes as prints and thus dramatically reduced the print audience, but it did not satisfy the needs of connoisseurs.
Ceramics
Ceramic and decorative arts flourished in the Edo period. While it was possible in almost all areas of the visual arts to accommodate the emergence of Japanese taste from the subdued or monochrome tastes of the Muromachi period to the burst of colour and pattern that was favoured in the Momoyama period, ceramics lagged behind. As the Edo period dawned, ceramic art also was able to participate in this development. Technological and supply limitations had previously hampered the ability of Japanese potters to produce a high-fired polychrome product. That problem was rectified in the early 17th century when the chambered climbing kiln was imported from Korea. This type of kiln was able to sustain controlled, high temperatures. Also, Korean potters working in western Japan discovered clay with a kaolin content high enough to allow vessels to be fired to the hard, fine surface classified as porcelain. In particular, white-glazed porcelain provided an excellent surface for the application of pigments to produce polychrome design patterns. Initial interest was in the imitation of Chinese blue-and-white ware, but the palette was quickly expanded.
The potter Sakaida Kakiemon, active in Arita in western Japan, was a pioneer in expanding the colour range and design patterns on the newly achieved creamy white surfaces. His works were especially admired in Europe. Also produced in the Arita region, by potters working for the Nabeshima clan, was a high-fired ware most frequently seen as footed shallow plates or dishes. The designs applied to the ware were typically bold and employed combinations of Yamato-e style painting and textile patterns. Kutani ware was produced in similar shapes, although denser designs and darker colours were used in the decoration. Kutani ware was primarily commissioned by the Maeda domain and, like Nabeshima ware, was not for public consumption or export.
Kyōto ceramics, already noted for the low-fired raku ware, responded to the fashion for porcelain with a break from the older traditions. Nonomura Ninsei is the first identifiable Kyōto potter to use the high-fired, smooth-surfaced ware as a means to offer brilliantly coloured, painterly designs. Ninsei was far less interested than his predecessors in the inherent character of a vessel’s randomly produced surface. His ceramic ware ranged beyond traditional vessels and included incense burners, candle holders, and other Buddhist liturgical implements. Kyōto artists who continued variations of the Ninsei legacy—referred to, after the place of production, as kyōyaki—included Ōgata Kōrin’s brother Kenzan and Aoki Mokubei (1767–1833). Kenzan’s designs favoured uncomplicated and bold variations of rinpa painting style, while Mokubei’s work reflected interest in Chinese sources. Not surprisingly, he was a member of an important circle of literati.
Lacquerware
Throughout the Edo period, innovations in the production and design of lacquerware met the demands of a widening and appreciative audience. Extremely time-consuming to produce, the finished lacquer product is strong and resilient if properly handled. Ensembles for the study (such as writing tables and boxes to hold ink stones and brushes), furniture, and dining ware were among the most frequent uses. Paralleling in many ways the trends in ceramics, Edo period lacquerware shifted from the sedate and simple styles of the Muromachi period as a taste for remarkably striking and complex objects developed. A delight in trompe-l’oeil was increasingly evident.
Lacquer was typically used for constructing inrō, the small, often multitiered and compartmentalized case that hung from a gentleman’s kimono sash and held small belongings. It is perhaps in this format, especially from the late 18th century, that lacquer artists were most inspired by novelty and new fashions, such as the taste for verisimilitude. A lacquer inrō could be made to look as if it were made, for example, of aged and rotting wood or animal skin. Technically remarkable and frequently ingenious in construction and design, these and other objects were the aesthetic opposites of such early lacquer examples as Negoro ware. The later efforts seemed intent on disguising rather than revealing component materials.
Sculpture
Sculpture did not enjoy a great infusion of creativity during the Edo period. More obviously mannered and stylized interpretations of Buddhist deities and worthies were regularly produced. There were, of course, some sculptors of exceptional talent. Shōun Genkei is renowned for his production (1688–95) of a set of 500 arhats (disciples of the Buddha) at Gohyaku Rakan Temple in Edo. His inspiration came from exposure to Chinese sculpture imported by Ōbaku Zen monks at Manpuku Temple to the south of Kyōto. Another expressive and thoroughly individualistic sculptor of the Edo period was the itinerant monk Enkū. He produced charming and rough-featured sculptures revealing bold chisel marks. His goals were to inspire faith and to proselytize. His works are totally without artifice, and the energy and power of his efforts are clearly conveyed.
Modern period
Japan’s modern period is, for the purposes of this article, defined as beginning with the Meiji Restoration in 1868 and continuing through to the present. In the Japanese system of dating, this period encompasses the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Taishō period (1912–26), the Shōwa period (1926–89), and the Heisei period (began 1989).
Modernity for Japan has been a process of seeking definition in its cultural and political relationships with other nations, both Asian and Western. Japan’s official intentions toward the West during the Meiji period can be described as a calculated attempt to achieve Western industrial standards and to absorb Western culture at every possible level. In the mid-1870s a wide variety of Western experts, including military strategists, railroad engineers, architects, philosophers, and artists, were invited to teach in Japanese universities or to in some other way assist in Japan’s process of growth and change. Also during this time Japan was directly involved in two international conflicts: a war with China (1894–95) and a war with Russia (1904–05). Victorious in both these conflicts, Japan proved its ability to gear its newly established industrial base to the achievement of foreign expansionist goals. In 1910 Japan officially annexed Korea, a process it had begun in 1905 when it assumed a protectorate status over the peninsular nation. Japan’s pretext was to establish a strong buffer zone against possible Western incursion, but Korea was essentially colonized as a source of labour and natural resources.
The Taishō period was characterized politically by a strengthening of popularly elected representative bodies, an interest in universal suffrage, and a comparatively liberal mood in the arts. In retrospect it was sometimes viewed as a romantic, euphoric period of cultural creativity following the more conservative Meiji era and preceding the militaristic mood of the 1930s. During this same period, as the Western powers with colonial and mercantile interests in Asia were forced to focus their attention on Europe during World War I (1914–18), Japan moved in to fill the vacuum, especially in China. The 1930s were characterized by a rise in militarism and further expansion on the Asian continent. This process culminated in World War II and in Japan’s defeat by Western powers in 1945. The postwar period began with the Allied—almost exclusively American—occupation of Japan and was characterized by rebuilding, rapid growth and development, and increasing internationalism.
The development of the visual arts since 1868 was considerably influenced by changing political climates and goals. Assuming an official posture of encyclopaedic investigation and selective assimilation of Western culture and technology in the late 19th century, the Japanese cultural mainstream was systematically infused with the classical forms of Western painting, sculpture, and architecture. In the first several decades of the Meiji period, there was an upheaval in patronage and in the status of the traditional Japanese artist. The Meiji government pursued a policy of officially separating whatever elements of Buddhism and Shintō had been joined over the centuries in Buddhism’s attempt at a syncretic relationship with the indigenous religion. Buddhism was stripped of many tax privileges. There was, as well, a sometimes violent and destructive reaction to Buddhism owing to strong nativist sentiments. The cumulative effect of this official dismantling and unofficial persecution was to release a remarkable amount of Buddhist art onto the market. Temples were forced to divest in order to support themselves, and the patronage supplied to artists who created Buddhist iconography was seriously curtailed. Japanese artists also suffered because of the general trend to idealize all aspects of Western culture. Vast amounts of Japanese art, wood-block prints being the foremost example, went to Western collections.
This trend began to be reversed in the 1880s owing in part, ironically, to the efforts of Ernest Fenollosa, a recent Harvard graduate who arrived in Japan in 1878 as a philosophy instructor at the Tokyo Imperial University (now University of Tokyo). His avocational interest in Japanese and Chinese art became his passion. The Japanese reshuffling of cultural priorities placed him in a particularly advantageous position to acquire Japanese art—especially Buddhist art—of exceptional quality for Western collections. Working with a former student, Okakura Kakuzō, also known as Tenshin, Fenollosa also moved forcefully to influence the Japanese to reclaim their cultural heritage and to adapt creatively to changing tastes.
The Japanese government sponsored the participation of Japanese artists and craftsmen in various late 19th- and early 20th-century international expositions held in Europe and America. These were of some help in advancing Western knowledge of Japanese culture. Collecting of the type endorsed by Fenollosa, as well as more popular collecting inspired by the flood of Japanese arts and crafts to Western markets, caused Westerners to take notice of a theretofore unknown visual arts tradition. This Western assessment of Japanese art was done in piecemeal fashion. Some obvious and immediate results included the influence of Japanese art on European and American painters and printmakers as well as the wider trend to Japanism. This initiation of communication between disparate visual worlds began the lengthy process of asserting the Japanese fine arts tradition within the context of world culture.
The early 20th century was not only a time of continued assimilation of Western art forms and philosophies but also a period in which traditional Japanese forms sought and achieved a new interpretive voice. With the rise of militarism, the visual arts were largely conscripted for straightforward propagandistic purposes or allowed only in thematically banal forms. Japan’s defeat in World War II produced in many Japanese intellectuals and artists a distrust of the authority of the indigenous tradition, leading them to search for meaning in artistic movements and traditions abroad. Meanwhile, the postwar Allied occupation forces (1945–52) urged structural changes to ensure that Japan’s cultural properties were properly honoured, protected, and made more widely available to general audiences. Censorship of contemporary materials, particularly for political content, continued to be imposed. In general, however, the occupation opened the way for international cross-cultural experimentation and the development of an “international style” that persists to the present.
Western-style painting
As early as 1855, preceding the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese established a bureau (later named Bansho Shirabesho, or Institute for the Study of Western Documents) to study Western painting as part of an effort to master Western technology. Technical drawing was emphasized in the curriculum. Takahashi Yuichi, a graduate of that bureau, was the first Japanese artist of the period to express an artistic rather than strictly technical interest in oil painting. Through self-training and in consultation with the British illustrator Charles Wirgman, then in Japan, his level of mastery increased. His Still Life of Salmon (1877), one of seven known attempts by Takahashi at the subject, elevates this ordinary subject to a splendid study of form and colour.
A school of fine arts was established in 1876, and a team of Italian artists was hired to teach Western techniques. Most influential among them was Antonio Fontanesi. Active as an instructor in Japan for only a year, Fontanesi, a painter of the Barbizon school, established an intensely loyal following among his Japanese students. His influence is seen in the works of Asai Chū, who later studied in Europe. Asai’s contemporary Kuroda Seiki studied in France under Raphael Collin and was among the most prominent exponents of a style that was strongly influenced by Impressionism in its informality and its use of lighter, brighter colours.
In general, it can be observed that in the Meiji period there was an initial calculated strategy to study Western representational methods for the larger purpose of bringing Japan to a perceived level of modernity. However, a small but influential group of painters became involved in a cross-cultural exchange that could not be controlled by government planning. Oil paintings that vary in skill of execution from awkward to highly competent were produced during this time. Unlike the comparatively sympathetic modes of painting that Japan assimilated from China, Western painting posed conceptual as well as technical challenges. Not only did unfamiliar materials such as oil and canvas have to be mastered but also new theories of composition, shading, and perspective—and the underlying Western philosophy of nature and its representation that had led to their development over the centuries—had to be absorbed.
The close of the Meiji period saw greater rigidification of painting schools, affiliations, and systems of official recognition through annual exhibitions. There were government-sponsored exhibitions and associations as well as protest salon or secessionist groups indicating a lively spirit of resistance to official control.
An increasingly sophisticated understanding of European art and cultural trends marked the Taishō period. The humanistic literary journal Shirakaba (“White Birch”) was devoted to and highly influential on these subjects, and it was instrumental in introducing Japanese artists to European Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Its publication period (1910–23) essentially spanned the Taishō era. The paintings of Kishida Ryūsei exemplify the extensive assimilation of sympathetic European moods into a Japanese mode. Kishida was a devoted follower of the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh and later of artists of the Northern Renaissance such as Albrecht Dürer and Jan van Eyck. Reiko with a Woolen Shawl (1921), Kishida’s portrait of his six-year-old daughter, attributes a knowing maturity to the sitter, an effect achieved, in part, through a slight distortion of features to produce a gnomelike adult visage.
The conscription of efforts during the war years enforced on the visual arts choices of severe puritanism, blithe optimism, or heroism. The work of Umehara Ryūzaburō is a case in point. In the early 20th century he studied with Asai Chū and in France with Pierre-Auguste Renoir. His ebullient palette and love of patterning, as seen in his famous Cijincheng Palace (1940), convey a cheerful mood. Not revealed in the painting is its occasion: the artist is present in Beijing as part of an occupying force in the midst of war.
In the postwar period Japanese artists enjoyed widely increased access to Western sources and the ability to travel more freely in the West. As a result, practitioners of virtually all modern artistic movements and styles—including abstract expressionism, minimal and kinetic art, and Op and pop art—can be found in Japan.
