Ballet remained subservient to vocal music at the Paris Opéra until the 1770s, but elsewhere—and even in Paris—enlightened ballet masters had been experimenting with a genre in which dance was allied with mime to form a new type of theatrical work known as the ballet d’action. Its origin can be traced back at least to 1717, when in London John Weaver produced The Loves of Mars and Venus, which he claimed echoed the pantomimes of ancient Rome. This was the forerunner of several pioneering attempts to weave dance and mime into a narrative work, notably by Franz Hilverding and Gasparo Angiolini in Vienna and Jean-Baptiste de Hesse and Antoine Pitrot in Paris (on other stages than the Opéra). It fell to the French choreographer and writer Jean-Georges Noverre to establish the genre of the ballet d’action in the public consciousness.

At the Opéra-Comique in Paris Noverre produced in 1754 a remarkable ballet on a Chinese theme that earned him an engagement in London. There Noverre was befriended by the actor David Garrick, who became an important influence in his artistic development. In 1760, at the court of Württemberg (now in Germany), he produced a series of major works in which he realized his personal vision of the ballet d’action. The most celebrated of these was Médée et Jason, in which Gaétan Vestris played Jason. Noverre’s fame spread throughout Europe. After Württemberg he was employed in Vienna, where Empress Maria Theresa recommended him to her daughter, Queen Marie-Antoinette of France, for the post of ballet master at the Paris Opéra.

Noverre’s brief engagement at the Opéra was a turning point of the greatest significance. Gaétan Vestris, a dominant figure there, espoused the cause of the ballet d’action. Although the other ballet masters, Jean Dauberval and Maximilien Gardel, forced Noverre out of the organization, they were no less committed to the new genre he had introduced.

Noverre’s fame also derived from his writings, notably Lettres sur la danse et sur les ballets (1760), one of the classics of dance literature, in which he drew attention to the shortcomings of the ballet of his time and set down his ideas for reforming his art and explained his vision of the ballet d’action.

The age of Gardel

Until the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, the Paris Opéra remained closely linked to the court. The revolution put an end to such support. The turn of the 19th century was a time of confusion for the arts, during which ballet gained greatly in popularity and prestige at the expense of its sister art, opera. Ballet’s success was largely a consequence of the personal effort of the ballet master Pierre Gardel (Maximilien’s brother), who dominated French ballet from 1787 to 1827. Gardel was not only an experienced administrator but also a choreographer, esteemed throughout Europe. In Paris he staged many ballets from a wide variety of genres, from Classical legend (Psyché, 1790) to comedy (La Dansomanie, 1800) and contemporary fiction (Paul et Virginie, 1806). He was most ably supported by Louis Milon, who himself produced a number of masterpieces, including the tear-jerking Nina, ou la folle par amour (1813; “Nina, or Mad by Love”) and the boisterous Le Carnaval de Venise, ou la constance à l’épreuve (1816; “The Carnival of Venice, or The Test of Constancy”). Under Gardel’s rule the dominance of the Paris ballet was recognized throughout Europe for its ballet productions, for dancers such as Marie Gardel, Emilia Bigottini, and Louis Duport, and for superior teachers such as Jean-Franƈois Coulon.

Meanwhile, ballet had also taken root in other European cities, most notably in Vienna and in Italian cities such as Milan and Naples. The outstanding Italian choreographer of this era was Salvatore Viganò, who endeavoured to mold dance and silent drama to a greater extent than any other choreographer of his time. His most celebrated work was his definitive version of the Prometheus legend, Prometeo (1813), which reused much of Ludwig van Beethoven’s ballet music for the Vienna State Opera (Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, 1801; The Creatures of Prometheus). Among other celebrated choreographers working in Italy at this time were Gaetano Gioja and the French-born Louis Henry.

Ballet as an aspect of Romanticism

The world changed fast after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The base of the Parisian theatregoing public was broadening with the rise of a wealthy middle class, while in matters of artistic taste the younger generation rejected the neoclassical preferences of their elders and surrendered to the growing vogue for Romanticism. Ballet itself would be radically changed. After the fall of the Bourbon monarchy in 1830, the Opéra was privatized, and its new management opened the door to Romanticism with Giacomo Meyerbeer’s opera Robert le Diable (1831; “Robert the Devil”) and Filippo Taglioni’s ballet, La Sylphide (1832; “The Sylph”). The latter, which became the prototype for many other ballets with a spirit as heroine, established the fame of Filippo Taglioni’s daughter, Marie Taglioni, the most eminent ballerina of her generation. Trained by Coulon and polished by her father, Taglioni had a style that set her apart from her contemporaries; she projected a spiritual quality that was said to touch the soul, and her virtuosity was subjugated to the creation of mood.

The years from about 1830 to 1850 were a golden age for ballet. Taglioni was followed by other great stars, who like her enjoyed international renown, including the Austrian Fanny Elssler. Elssler was famed for character dances such as the Spanish cachucha, and she had a dramatic flair that was evident in Joseph Mazilier’s La Gipsy (1839) and Jules Perrot’s La Esmeralda (1844). After Elssler came Carlotta Grisi, who created the title role in Giselle (1841), a ballet that remains, somewhat modified, in the 21st-century repertoire.

The age was dominated by the ballerina at the expense of the male dancer. Women’s technique became increasingly virtuosic, largely as a result of the development of pointe work (i.e., dancing on the toes). In the last third of the 19th century, ballet in Paris was in artistic decline; the only work of merit to survive was Arthur Saint-Léon’s Coppélia (1870).

One centre in which the male dancer held his own was Copenhagen, where the Paris-trained August Bournonville directed the ballet for many years. He produced many ballets, including his own version of La Sylphide (1836) and Napoli (1842); both of these have remained in the repertoire into the 21st century, and both convey an authentic flavour of the Romantic style.

London was another important centre of ballet at this time, but there ballet was largely an imported form, dominated by visiting stars from the Continent and by French choreographers. Outstanding among these was Jules Perrot, who produced a string of masterworks, including La Esmeralda (1844) and the all-star Pas de Quatre (1845). However, the great flowering of ballet in London was to be of short duration, and some 80 years were to pass before the first stirrings of a truly English ballet tradition were felt.

The Imperial Russian Ballet

As the 19th century drew to a close, the centre of ballet activity moved to St. Petersburg, where the art was supported by the bottomless resources at the disposal of the tsar. Nevertheless, ballet remained an exotic import from western Europe, and the only production of note with a Russian theme was Arthur Saint-Léon’s The Little Humpbacked Horse (1864). Saint-Léon was one of a line of French ballet masters who worked in Russia; he was preceded by Perrot and succeeded by Marius Petipa. Petipa dominated the Russian ballet from 1870 to 1903, virtually replenishing the repertoire with ballets of his own. Several of these have survived to form the basic ballet classics into the 21st century: not only the three ballets to scores by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky—The Sleeping Beauty (1890), The Nutcracker (1892), and Swan Lake (1895; Petipa’s assistant, Lev Ivanov, set the lakeside acts)—but also an earlier work, La Bayadère (1877; “The [Hindu] Temple Dancer”), and a later one, Raymonda (1898). Petipa also ensured the survival of Giselle.

The Imperial Ballet paid great attention to the training of its dancers, and an essentially Russian style emerged in the company. The Italian style taught by Enrico Cecchetti and the French style taught by Christian Johansson together formed the foundation for the Russian school that was to become dominant in 20th-century ballet.