Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12)
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- porcelain
With the Qing dynasty came the beginning of the immense vogue for porcelain in Europe that was to reach its height during the first half of the 18th century. Many varieties of Qing ware are common in the West. Its wares differ, for the most part, from those of the Ming period in a fairly distinctive manner. Potters had their medium under almost complete control, and their products are much more precisely finished. Their finesse contrasts sharply with the struggles of potters in Europe, where porcelain manufacture did not emerge from the purely empirical stage until the 19th century. Letters written in 1712 and 1722 by a Jesuit missionary who spent some years at Jingdezhen record that some Qing pieces were handled by as many as 70 men, each contributing a small part to the total effect, and this is one of the reasons why many Qing wares are found to lack the freshness and the spontaneity of Ming decoration.
The imperial kilns of Jingdezhen were fortunate in the support they received from the palace during the reigns of the Kangxi (1662–1722), Yongzheng (1723–35), and Qianlong (1736–95) emperors. The Kangxi emperor, in particular, was a patron of the arts on a considerable scale.
Underglaze blue and red
The blue-painted porcelain of the Qing dynasty was somewhat neglected in the 20th century. This is probably due to the ridiculously high value placed on it during the latter years of the 19th century, when it was often called Nanjing ware. Even the best, which belongs to the reign of the Kangxi emperor, hardly bears comparison with the finer Ming wares, though its influence on European porcelain was far-reaching. Blue-and-white porcelain was exported to Europe in vast quantities, and many of the forms were especially made for export; the condiment ledge on plates and dishes, for instance, which first appeared in the reign of the Wanli emperor (Ming dynasty), had been added for Western customers (the Chinese used the saucer dish). The blue-and-white of the Kangxi period has an extremely white body, and the blue is exceptionally clear and pure. It is variable in shade, and the design is executed in graduated washes within lightly drawn outlines, a point of difference from Ming wares. Many of the designs of the Ming period were in use, and, of the later patterns, those illustrating literary and historical themes are probably of the highest quality.
Ginger jars decorated with prunus blossom reserved in white on an irregular blue ground, intended to represent the cracked ice of spring and sometimes described as pulsating, were once valued highly; in the mid-20th century a more realistic attitude was taken toward them.
Underglaze copper red was also used during the 18th century. The stem cups of the Yongzheng period with three fruit or three fish in silhouette, which imitate those of Xuande, are much better known than the wares they copied. Copper red also appears in conjunction with underglaze blue, and a greenish-toned glaze is common with pieces thus decorated.
Underglaze blue was sometimes used as a monochrome ground colour. It was blown on the surface in powder form before glazing; a bamboo tube, closed with gauze at one end, was employed for the purpose. It is thus called powder blue, or, in Chinese, chui qing (“blown blue”), and is distinct from the sponged blue grounds of the Ming dynasty. It was subsequently used at several of the porcelain factories in Europe. Clair de lune (yue bai, “moon white”), a cobalt glaze of the palest blue shade, was also used.
Coloured glazes
Copper red, called oxblood (sang de boeuf) by the French, appears in monochrome form as Lang yao. This glaze was also known to the Chinese as “blown red” (chui hong). It was certainly used as a monochrome in early Ming times and possibly even earlier, and is the direct ancestor of the showy flambé glazes (yao bian) of the Qianlong period that are often vividly streaked with unreduced copper blue.
Another variation, no doubt at first accidental, is the glaze known in the West as “peach bloom,” a pinkish red mottled with russet spots and tinged with green. The Chinese have various names for it, but perhaps the commonest is “bean red” (jiangdou hong). It is used on a white body. Most objects glazed in this way are small items for the writer’s table.
Monochromes of all kinds are a distinct and important section of Qing wares, and many reproductions of Song monochromes were made. The use of iron as a pigment can be seen in a revival of the celadon glaze. The Jingdezhen celadons have, generally, a pale-green glaze over white porcelain, the foot ring being given a wash of brown to simulate the old ware. Meanwhile, celadons of the Longquan type were still being made. In addition to the celadon glaze, iron was used to produce colours varying between café au lait and pale yellow and also “deadleaf” brown.
Sometimes panels were reserved in white and painted in overglaze colours. Specimens thus glazed appear in the old Dutch catalogues as Batavian ware, because the wares were imported via the Dutch centre of trade and transshipment at Batavia (modern Jakarta), in Java. They are also related to “mirror black” (wujin), a lustrous colour obtained by the addition of manganese, and sometimes decorated with gilding or even, as in at least one extant specimen, with both gilding and silvering. Imperial yellow, a lead glaze often used over engraved dragons and similar designs, was again employed during the 19th century.
Brilliant turquoise glazes derived from copper have been produced up to the mid-20th century, although later examples seldom have the quality of the earlier ones. The glaze is usually covered with a network of fine crackle, and in some examples there is engraved decoration under the glaze. Related glazes are the copper greens—for example, leaf green and cucumber green, the latter being speckled with a darker colour. Apple green is an overglaze colour used as a ground and applied over a crackled gray glaze. Most greens are relatively late.
Purple, or aubergine, glazes derived from manganese are seen occasionally. Brinjal bowls, decorated with engraved flowers, have an aubergine ground in conjunction with dappled green and yellow glazes. (Brinjal, in fact, means aubergine, or eggplant, which is a favourite food in parts of the East.) Bowls with engraved dragons and a combination of only two of these colours are somewhat better in quality.
Overglaze colours
Overglaze colours were sometimes used as monochromes; for example, iron red or, as it is sometimes called because it varies a little in shade, coral red. The surface is usually glossy but occasionally mat. The rose colour, discussed below, was used both as a monochrome and as a ground colour.
The wares enamelled on biscuit are a much sought after group. They are a development of the Ming sancai wares, which were still being made during the Qing period. The effect of painting directly on biscuit was to produce a soft and distinctive colouring that is extremely attractive. The outlines were first painted directly on the unglazed surface in brownish black; some of the colours were then painted within these outlines and others were washed over them; however, red or blue overglaze colours, when they appear, are usually provided with a patch of glaze underneath them. The practice seems hardly to have survived the Kangxi period, except for deliberately made later copies.
During the reign of the Kangxi emperor the wares decorated in overglaze were painted in the famille verte palette, usually over a white glaze. The name famille verte (“green family”) is derived from the distinctive green employed, but the wares are a development of the Wanli five-colour ware, the major difference being the replacement of the earlier underglaze blue by an overglaze blue. On most genuine examples it is possible to see a distinct halo around the overglaze blue, but its absence does not condemn the piece as not genuine. The famille noire has the verte palette in conjunction with a black ground; the famille jaune uses the same colours but is used in conjunction with a yellow ground. In each case the white porcelain disappears under the colours.
During the reign of the Kangxi emperor (c. 1685) an opaque rose-coloured overglaze appears. This and its related colours were called “foreign colours” (yangcai). It soon formed the characteristic colour of a group of wares, referred to as the famille rose, which was particularly developed during the reign of the Yongzheng emperor. It more or less replaced the verte palette. The translucent overglaze colours of the earlier period tended to become opaque, and painting has a more feminine quality.
During the 18th century the white wares of Jingdezhen were made mostly for the home market, though a few were exported. They included examples of the bodiless ware and the anhua (literally “secret language”). The latter, copied from a traditional Yongle (1402–24) type, has designs lightly incised or painted with white slip. The body is white, and the whole is covered with clear glaze. The decoration can only be seen plainly if light is allowed to shine through it. Pierced work was revived in certain rare pieces inspired by jade; the use of piercing that was filled with glaze was derived from Persian Gombroon ware.
European influence and the export trade
Before the mid-18th century, some European wares had found their way to China, as witness certain copies of early Meissen porcelain. The taste of the European trader, though hardly representative of the more cultured section of Western civilization, also began to have influence.
Much decoration was done in studios in and around the port of Canton (Guangzhou), white porcelain being sent from Jingdezhen for that purpose. Enormous quantities of famille rose porcelain were painted there, including most of the “ruby-backed” dishes, which are completely covered on the reverse, except for the interior of the foot ring, with a ground of overglaze opaque rose. They often have an elaborate arrangement of minutely delineated border patterns around the central subject (usually pretty women), demonstrating the new, and later widespread, idea that the beauty of an object is directly proportional to the amount of decoration on it. This theory was to be one of the causes of the degeneration of later Chinese and Japanese wares; it was, however, by no means confined to Asia and can be seen in most 19th-century European porcelain.
The Yongzheng painters were the first to carry foliate decoration over on to the back of the dish, usually as a prolongation of the stem. This was repeated later during the reign of the Daoguang emperor (1821–50). The European tendency to draw flowers in a naturalistic manner also appears in China from the Yongzheng period onward, although the practice was not carried to the same lengths.
An attempt to imitate the European method of overglaze painting, in which colours were applied in flat washes that partly sank into soft porcelain glazes, can be seen in the “ancient moon pavilion” (guyuexuan) wares. These will sometimes have a European subject, for example, a Watteau shepherdess, but Chinese subjects were also used.
Of the wares more directly due to European intervention perhaps the best known is Chinese export porcelain, still sometimes known as Oriental Lowestoft. The name is due to an error on the part of William Chaffers (the author of a book on pottery marks), who persisted in attributing these wares to the small English factory at Lowestoft. If this porcelain is important at all, it is as a curiosity; the artistic value is nearly always negligible. The styles are usually based on those of European pottery or metalwork or on a combination of Western and Asian motifs in an unpleasing jumble. The designs were provided by Western traders, and coats of arms are comparatively common.
Other wares connected with the export trade are those decorated with the Mandarin patterns; these came from Cantonese studios and were introduced toward the end of the 18th century. They have figure subjects in panels that are surrounded with coloured grounds and an excess of floral and other ornament in unprepossessing combinations of colours.
Much white porcelain was sent to Canton to be decorated, but much, too, was shipped to Europe for the same purpose. Many examples were painted by German studio painters, by Dutch enamelers, and by English “outside decorators.”
Europe, of course, was not the only export market open to the Chinese. Much blue-and-white was exported to the traditional markets in Persia and the Middle East (Arabic inscriptions can be seen on some specimens) and elsewhere—India, Thailand, and Myanmar (Burma).
The wares discussed so far have been principally those of Jingdezhen. Those of Dehua in Fujian province, however, are also important. Figures of the Buddhist goddess Guanyin in particular were exported in enormous quantities, and the anhua and pierced decorations often came from Dehua. Vessels, such as libation cups with applied prunus sprigs, were copied by European factories in the 18th century, notably by those at Meissen; Chelsea and Bow, England; and Saint-Cloud, France. The body is usually white, sometimes with an ivory tone, and the glaze is thick, rich, and lustrous. European forms are to be seen occasionally, and most coloured examples have been decorated in the West. The kilns of Yixing also continued making the traditional wares.
19th and 20th centuries
The 19th century has little to offer that is new or of good quality. Snuff bottles painted with miniature designs were first made toward the end of the 18th century, but most belong to the reign of the Jiajing (1796–1820) and Daoguang (1821–50) emperors. Bowls with circular medallions painted in overglaze colours with yellow or rose grounds are, perhaps, among the finer wares. Also of good quality are bowls covered with an opaque ground, rose or yellow, with designs engraved into it. These were first made in the 18th century and extend to the reign of the Daoguang emperor.
Most of the wares of Daoguang are poor in quality, although some examples in the style of Yongzheng are better. The glaze has a musliny texture similar to that seen on some early Ming wares and on Japanese porcelain from Arita. Translucent overglaze colours over underglaze blue are a Yongzheng type that had a revival at this time. In addition, the rose-verte palette was commonly used.
In 1853 the Taiping Rebellion led to the destruction of the kilns at Jingdezhen, which were not rebuilt until 1864. The reign of the Tongzhi emperor (1862–74) is principally notable for poor copies of earlier monochromes, including the peach-bloom glaze. Nearly all wares from this time onward are slick copies of older work.
Korea
Because Korea lies to the north of China and close to the islands of Japan, it has usually formed a cultural link between the two countries. During the Japanese invasion of 1592, for instance, many Korean potters were taken to Japan, where they were set to work making tea ceremony wares, which had hitherto been imported, and they later helped to found the porcelain industry.
It is difficult to distinguish some Korean wares from those made in the northern provinces of China during the contemporary Han to Tang period. The wares of the Silla period (57 bce–935 ce) include some reminiscent of those of the Zhou dynasty. Specimens of stoneware obviously based on metalwork are distantly related to some of the Han bronzes. Patterns on these wares are geometric and incised into the clay before firing.
An olive-green glaze was introduced later in the Silla dynasty, probably about the 9th century. Roof tiles and finials have a brown or a green glaze and may be contemporary with the Han dynasty.
The wares of the Koryŏ dynasty (918–1392; roughly corresponding to the Chinese Song and Yuan dynasties) exhibit a much greater diversity and fall into rather more clearly defined groups. The attribution of certain black-glazed temmoku types (see above China: Song dynasty) is controversial, but it seems that at least some of them were made in Korea. Many celadons, too, have typical Korean lobed forms, based on the melon or the gourd. These are also to be seen in porcelain, much of which has a bluish-white glaze. Some lobed boxes, usually circular, are decorated with impressed designs and are probably always Korean.
One of the difficulties in the study of Korean pottery is that practically everything has been recovered from tombs; few actual kiln sites have been discovered. Nevertheless, one such excavation at Yuch’ŏn-ni has disclosed shards of both the celadon glaze and of white porcelain from which it seems evident that white porcelain resembling both the Yingqing and Ding types was made (see above China: Song dynasty). The earliest vessels were probably fairly close copies of Chinese styles, while the distinctive Korean style followed rather later. A crazing of the glaze and a certain amount of flaking are characteristic. A mere handful of specimens, some fragmentary, of inlaid white porcelain have survived. They are best represented by a vase in the Natural Museum of Modern Arts in the Tŏksu Palace of Seoul that has panels of black-and-white inlay beneath a celadon glaze. Decoration on much Korean porcelain of the period is either incised (foliage being a frequent motif), combed, or molded in shallow relief.
Korean celadons have a stoneware body covered with a glaze varying from bluish green to a putty colour; some are obviously analogous to the celadons of Yuezhou. Characteristic of Korean pots are the stilt or spur marks to be seen on the otherwise glazed base; these are the points on which the pots rested in the kiln. Many of the forms are lobed. Perhaps the most important divergence from the usual Chinese celadon is the presence of inlaid decoration beneath the glaze of many specimens, later examples of which are often referred to as mishima.
The designs were first incised into the clay, and the incisions were then filled with black and white slip. The inlaid patterns are diverse, but most of the subjects are floral; birds are to be seen occasionally. Isolated flowers with symmetrically radiating petals are also found, principally on boxes.
While most Korean wares of the Chosŏn dynasty (1392–1910) are distinctly rougher than those of China in the Ming and Qing periods, the decoration is often magnificent in quality. Most can be clearly distinguished from Chinese wares by their forms, which show distinct differences in almost every case. Lobed forms suggested by the melon are very characteristic, and the pear-shaped bottle differs in its proportions from that of the Chinese. The large rugged jars with high shoulders are not so precisely potted as similar jars from China, often showing a marked degree of asymmetricality. Twisted rope handles are also peculiar to Korea. Many of the ewers are obvious adaptations from metalwork.
Painting in brownish black beneath a celadon glaze, which had begun in the Koryŏ dynasty, continued in the Chosŏn dynasty. Inlaid decoration was also executed during the early part of this period, the pattern often being engraved by stamps rather than incised freehand. Sgraffito decoration, in which patterns were incised through a grayish-white slip, is also seen occasionally.
Some excellent painted designs in an underglaze blue of variable colour but usually distinctly grayish in tone were executed on a rough porcelain body that is almost stoneware. The designs are particularly notable for great economy of brushwork and superb drawing. Their affinities are much more with Japanese pottery than with contemporary Chinese wares. A typical Japanese technique, “brush” (hakeme), or brushed slip, is used in conjunction with painted decoration in the early part of the dynasty, but later it is used alone. Korean influence on Japanese pottery was probably at its strongest during the ascendancy of the Japanese warrior Hideyoshi (1536–98), who invaded Korea. It is unlikely that much important work was done in Korea itself after this invasion.
