Bertrand, Count Clauzel

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Clauzel, lithograph by A.-L. Lemercier after a portrait by A. Maurin

Bertrand, Count Clauzel

Q: What were the Napoleonic Wars?

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts between Napoleon ’s France and a shifting web of alliances among other European powers. The wars lasted from about 1800 to 1815, and for a brief time they made Napoleon the master of Europe.

Q: When did the Napoleonic Wars take place?

The Napoleonic Wars took place from about 1800 to 1815. They were a continuation of the French Revolutionary wars , which ran from 1792 to 1799. Together these conflicts represented 23 years of nearly uninterrupted war in Europe.

Q: Why were the Napoleonic Wars important?

The Congress of Vienna , which was the settlement that followed the Napoleonic Wars, remade the map of Europe and set the stage for the emergence of Germany and Italy as unified states. The pressures of the Napoleonic Wars also likely prompted Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

Q: How did the Napoleonic Wars end?

After the Allies entered Paris in March 1814, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the island of Elba. He returned to France in March 1815 and rebuilt his army, but he was defeated by Allied forces under the duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. Only after this defeat and Napoleon’s second abdication did the Napoleonic Wars end.

Q: What did the Napoleonic Wars have to do with the Era of Good Feelings in the United States?

The end of the Napoleonic Wars prompted a period of disengagement from European affairs by the United States that was known as the Era of Good Feelings . The “good feelings” in the United States were created by isolationism, a lull in sectional tension, and the political calm that resulted from the collapse of the Federalist Party .

marshal of France

Also known as: Bertrand, Comte Clausel

Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Last Updated: Apr 17, 2025 • Article History

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Clauzel also spelled:: Clausel

Born:: Dec. 12, 1772, Mirepoix, Fr.

Died:: April 21, 1842, Secourrieu, Haute-Garonne (aged 69)

Title / Office:: governor-general (1835-1836), Algeria; Chamber of Deputies (1830), France; Chamber of Deputies (1827), France

Role In:: Napoleonic Wars

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Bertrand, Count Clauzel (born Dec. 12, 1772, Mirepoix, Fr.—died April 21, 1842, Secourrieu, Haute-Garonne) was a marshal of France and governor of Algeria (1835–37).

After service in the eastern Pyrenees, northwestern France, and Italy, he rose to general of division in 1802 and distinguished himself during the Peninsular War (1809–12). Having crushed the Bordeaux royalists during the Hundred Days, he was made a peer of France by Napoleon (1815) but had to flee to the United States in 1816 to escape prosecution under the Restoration. Returning to France under the 1820 amnesty, he was elected deputy for Ariège in 1827. After the July Revolution of 1830 he temporarily replaced Marshal Bourmont in command in Algeria. On his recall he was elected deputy for Ardennes (October 1830) and made marshal of France (February 1831).

Convinced of Algeria’s possibilities, he proposed that settlers be brought there from all countries, that cotton be grown there, and that the Mitidja Plain be drained and protected by a network of blockhouses. Presenting himself as the only man capable of establishing and extending the French colony, he secured appointment as governor (1835). The French Cabinet, however, would not condone his aggressive policy. When he precipitately attacked Constantine (Algeria) and was defeated (1836), he was recalled to Paris and relieved of his post.

This article was most recently revised and updated by Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Napoleonic Wars

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Napoleonic Wars summary

Napoleonic Wars

European history

Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Last Updated: Apr 14, 2025 • Article History

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Date:: c. 1801 - 1815

Location:: Europe

Participants:: Austria; France; Ottoman Empire; Portugal; Prussia; Russia; Spain; United Kingdom

Context:: British Empire

Major Events:: Battle of the Nile; Peninsular War; Battle of the Pyramids; Battle of Trafalgar; Battle of Waterloo

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What were the Napoleonic Wars?

When did the Napoleonic Wars take place?

Why were the Napoleonic Wars important?

How did the Napoleonic Wars end?

What did the Napoleonic Wars have to do with the Era of Good Feelings in the United States?

Napoleonic Wars, series of wars between Napoleonic France and shifting alliances of other European powers that produced a brief French hegemony over most of Europe. Along with the French Revolutionary wars, the Napoleonic Wars constitute a 23-year period of recurrent conflict that concluded only with the Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon’s second abdication on June 22, 1815.

(See “Napoleon’s Major Battles” Interactive Map)

When the Coup of 18–19 Brumaire (November 9–10, 1799) brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power, the Second Coalition against France was beginning to break up. In Holland a capitulation had been signed for the withdrawal of the Anglo-Russian expeditionary force. Although the Russo-Austrian forces in Italy had won a series of victories, the course of the campaign in Switzerland had reflected growing differences between Austria and Russia. Despite Russia’s subsequent abandonment of the common cause and France’s recovery of control over Holland and Switzerland, the British government paid no serious attention to Bonaparte’s proposals for peace in December 1799. On the one hand the regime in France had yet to prove itself and on the other it was expected that the Austrians would make further gains.

The defeat of Austria, 1800–01

Napoleon IFirst Consul Bonaparte, oil on canvas by Antoine-Jean Gros, c. 1802; National Museum of the Legion of Honor, Paris.

Though Bonaparte had to embark on the campaigns of 1800 with inadequate forces and funds, the weaknesses of allied strategy went far to offset the disadvantages under which he laboured. Austria had decided on an equal division of its strength by maintaining armies of approximately 100,000 men in both the German and Italian theatres. Instead of reinforcing Austrian strength in northern Italy, where there was most hope of success, the British government spent its efforts in limited and isolated enterprises, among them an expedition of 6,000 men to capture Belle-Île off the Brittany coast and another of 5,000 to join the 6,000 already on the Balearic Island of Minorca. When in June these two forces were diverted to cooperate with the Austrians they arrived off the Italian coast too late to be of use.

Bonaparte’s plan was to treat Italy as a secondary theatre and to seek a decisive victory in Germany. It proved impossible to increase Victor Moreau’s Army of the Rhine to more than 120,000—too small a margin of superiority to guarantee the success required. Nevertheless, Bonaparte was busy with the creation of an army of reserve which was to be concentrated around Dijon and was destined to act under his command in Italy. Until he had engaged this force in the south, Bonaparte would be able, should the need arise, to take it to Moreau’s assistance. In Italy André Masséna’s 30,000–40,000 outnumbered troops were to face the Austrians in the Apennines and in the Maritime Alps until the army of reserve, marching to the south of the Army of the Rhine, should cross the Alps, fall upon the Austrians’ lines of communication, cut off their retreat from Piedmont, and bring them to battle. Bonaparte had hoped that Moreau would mass the Army of the Rhine in Switzerland and cross the river at Schaffhausen to turn the Austrian left in strength and obtain a decisive victory before dispatching some of his army to join the force descending on the rear of the Austrians in Italy. Moreau, however, preferred to cross the Rhine at intervals over a distance of 60 miles (approximately 100 km) and to encounter the Austrians before concentrating his own forces.

Louis IX of France (St. Louis), stained glass window of Louis IX during the Crusades. (Unknown location.)

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