club movement, American women’s social movement founded in the mid-19th century to provide women an independent avenue for education and active community service.

Before the mid-1800s most women’s associations, with some notable exceptions, were either auxiliaries of men’s groups or church-sponsored aid societies. Without a doubt, women played active and integral roles in these groups, but the direction and administration of such organizations were usually controlled by men.

Two prototypical women’s clubs were founded in 1868, Sorosis and the New England Women’s Club. Journalist Jane Cunningham Croly, a founder of Sorosis, and Julia Ward Howe, representing the New England Women’s Club, traveled the country promoting the value of clubs administered and controlled by women. They envisioned women’s clubs as a means for women to become better educated but also expected that the clubs would play a significant role in bettering society through voluntary community service.

Most club members were middle-aged white women from the leisured classes—women who had come of age when higher educational opportunities for women were limited. While literature and history were often the cornerstones of the study club curricula, some clubs specialized in the study of law, music, the sciences, and other fields. Clubwomen held discussions and presented essays and speeches on current topics of study. Many of the clubs followed the lead of Sorosis and the New England Women’s Club and combined self-improvement with voluntary community work, addressing needs for kindergartens, libraries, and parks. Such clubs often accomplished their goals in town councils through sheer persistence and determination—a remarkable achievement considering that, prior to enfranchisement, women had no sanctioned political voice.

By the late 19th century a great number of women’s clubs had sprung up across the country, and in 1890 Croly and Charlotte Emerson Brown founded an umbrella organization, the General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC), to coordinate the clubs’ activities. A parallel movement and organization arose among upper-middle-class African American women, who focused on issues of race as well as on educational and community concerns; their efforts culminated in the formation of the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) in 1896. The GFWC pushed the club movement more decisively in the direction of voluntary civic service by formulating a national public-minded agenda for clubs belonging to the federation. By the time women won the vote in 1920, however, the club movement had lost much of its momentum, as new avenues for change opened to women. The GFWC and the NACW remained active, and, although they undertook similar projects and had comparable goals, they remained distinct bodies.