Quick Facts
In full:
Francis Newton Souza
Born:
April 12, 1924, Saligoa, Portuguese Goa [now Goa state, India]
Died:
March 28, 2002, Mumbai, India (aged 77)

F.N. Souza (born April 12, 1924, Saligoa, Portuguese Goa [now Goa state, India]—died March 28, 2002, Mumbai, India) was one of India’s best-known contemporary painters whose style was not easily characterized, though it was decidedly modern in outlook. His subjects ranged from still lifes, landscapes, and nudes to Christian themes such as the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Souza’s paintings rejected convention and the banality of everyday life, and many of them explored erotic subjects.

Souza joined the Sir J.J. School of Art, in Bombay (now Mumbai), to study art, but he was soon expelled for his participation in the anti-British Quit India movement. He joined the Communist Party of India and, with such artists as Sayed Haider Raza and M.F. Husain, cofounded the Progressive Artists Group. In 1949 he left India to live in London, where, while struggling to make an impact as an artist, he eked out a living as a journalist. He also wrote an autobiography, Words & Lines (1959). In 1967 Souza received the Guggenheim International Award, then the highest monetary award given in the arts, and moved to New York, where he lived until shortly before his death.

This article was most recently revised and updated by Encyclopaedia Britannica.
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Native American art, the visual art of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Americas, often called American Indians. For a further discussion of the visual art of the Americas produced in the period after European contact, see Latin American art.

The nature and elements of Native American art

The role of the artist

The very use of the word art suggests one of the basic differences between European or European-derived and American Indian concepts. For not only did few American Indian groups allow art to become a major way of life, as in the West, but many Native American languages even lack a term meaning “art” or “artist.” If one wished to refer to a beautiful basket or a well-carved sculpture, it was usually necessary to rely upon such terms as “well-done,” “effective,” or perhaps “powerful” (in the magical sense). And the concept of an artist was largely of a person who was simply better at the job than was another. Generally, artists were accorded special significance only where wealth was a major factor in the culture. The elite of many cultures, whether wealthy in their own right or (more commonly) by having attained a high religious office, supported groups of artists who produced memorial and religious art.

Although American Indian people may not have considered artistic skill in terms of a vocation, the difference between a well-woven basket and a careless piece of work or a particularly well-designed carving and a crudely made example did not go unnoticed. Fine workmanship commanded a premium long before European contact, and with the advent of the monetary system, it was even more highly prized.

Collective versus individual art

The basic role of the American Indian artist is the same as that of the artist in any culture: to arouse an emotional response in his or her audience. In Native American cultures, the artist’s ability to communicate successfully depended largely upon the recognition of the force of tradition. The social organization of the various tribes allowed less latitude for experimentation than Western cultures and usually compelled the artist to work in familiar channels. Yet, within this rigid framework of tradition, there was sometimes a surprising degree of freedom of expression. There are recorded instances of individuals having made considerable changes in the art (and the economy) of their tribes. In North America, perhaps the most striking have been the careers of Nampeyó, the famed Hopi potter, and María Martínez and Julián Martínez, of San Ildefonso pueblo. Through sheer individual talent these people achieved a personal triumph by developing a style that not only was copied by other artists but in time also was regarded as “traditional” in that particular village. Although there is no way of knowing how often this happened in the past, there are suggestions that it occurred at Mimbres, among the Haida slate carvers, and quite possibly in some areas of the so-called Mound Builder cultures of the Southeast.

Origins of designs

The origins of most Native American decorative designs cannot be traced accurately today; most of them are lost in antiquity. Many obviously came from natural forms, while others are simple developments of geometric or lineal motifs. Some have become so interwoven with alien concepts—Western, after the advent of the European, for example—that it is impossible to completely unravel their sources. There is evidence, however, that some of the original forms were creations of individual artists and were often the result of a vision quest. To the American Indian the world of the vision quest is mysterious, a place where the soul can leave the body, participate in many strange activities, and see many unusual sights. Since many of the designs seen or creatures encountered during the vision quest are regarded as protective forms or spirit-beings, these would be carefully re-created during waking hours. Non-artists would occasionally describe their dream creatures to a designated artist so that they could be recorded on hide, in wood, or in stone. But since these supernatural visions were extremely personal, they were usually recorded by the individual; hence, they vary tremendously in aesthetic quality.

Because art designs were regarded as personal property, an artist could buy a design or receive it as a gift from its creator, but to appropriate and use it for his or her own purposes was taboo.

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