John Digby, 1st earl of Bristol (born February 1580—died Jan. 16, 1653, Paris) was an English diplomat and moderate Royalist, a leading advocate of conciliation and reform during the events leading to the Civil War (1642–51).
He served as ambassador to Spain for King James I (ruled 1603–25) during most of the period from 1611 to 1624, and in 1622 he was created earl of Bristol.
In 1623 Bristol earned the undying hostility of Prince Charles (later King Charles I) by informing James of the blunders made by Charles and the royal favourite, George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham, on a diplomatic mission to the Spanish court. Thus, when Charles ascended the throne, Bristol was removed from the Privy Council. In 1626 Charles imprisoned him to prevent him from bringing charges against Buckingham. Two years later the House of Lords obtained his release. Returning to his seat in the Lords, he helped obtain passage of the Petition of Right, which condemned arbitrary imprisonment and taxation by the king.
Bristol then retired from public life until 1639, when he reentered politics with the hope of relieving the mounting tensions between Charles and Parliament. Appointed a privy councillor in 1641, he was regarded by the Parliamentarians with particular hatred and distrust and was even subjected to a period of imprisonment in the Tower of London in 1642. Nevertheless, he worked for a negotiated settlement after the outbreak of the Civil War. Upon the collapse of the King’s cause in 1646, he was exiled to France, where he spent the rest of his life.
Though the struggles of the Thirty Years War erupted some years earlier, the war is conventionally held to have begun in 1618, when the future Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and the Protestant nobles of both Bohemia and Austria rose up in rebellion.
What was the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War was a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed.
Who was the Holy Roman Emperor during the first half of the Thirty Years’ War?
Ferdinand II, the Holy Roman emperor (1619–37) and the king of Bohemia, was the leading champion of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation and absolutist rule during the Thirty Year’s War.
What treaty ended the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which changed the map of Europe irrevocably. The peace was negotiated, from 1644, in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, 1648. The treaty of October 24, 1648, comprehended the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden. Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty.
What led to the end of Denmark as a European power?
Near the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War in 1625, King Christian IV of Denmark saw an opportunity to gain valuable territory in Germany to balance his earlier loss of Baltic provinces to Sweden. But Christian was defeated, and the Peace of Lübeck in 1629 finished Denmark as a European power.
Thirty Years’ War, (1618–48), in European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed.
Although the struggles that created it erupted some years earlier, the war is conventionally held to have begun in 1618, when the future Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II, in his role as king of Bohemia, attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and the Protestant nobles of both Bohemia and Austria rose up in rebellion. Ferdinand won after a five-year struggle. In 1625 King Christian IV of Denmark saw an opportunity to gain valuable territory in Germany to balance his earlier loss of Baltic provinces to Sweden. Christian’s defeat and the Peace of Lübeck in 1629 finished Denmark as a European power, but Sweden’s Gustav II Adolf, having ended a four-year war with Poland, invaded Germany and won many German princes to his anti-Roman Catholic, anti-imperial cause.
Meanwhile the conflict widened, fueled by political ambitions of the various powers. Poland, having been drawn in as a Baltic power coveted by Sweden, pushed its own ambitions by attacking Russia and establishing a dictatorship in Moscow under Władysław, Poland’s future king. The Russo-Polish Peace of Polyanov in 1634 ended Poland’s claim to the tsarist throne but freed Poland to resume hostilities against its Baltic archenemy, Sweden, which was now deeply embroiled in Germany. Here, in the heartland of Europe, three denominations vied for dominance: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. This resulted in a Gordian tangle of alliances as princes and prelates called in foreign powers to aid them. Overall, the struggle was between the Holy Roman Empire, which was Roman Catholic and Habsburg, and a network of Protestant towns and principalities that relied on the chief anti-Catholic powers of Sweden and the United Netherlands, which had at last thrown off the yoke of Spain after a struggle lasting 80 years. A parallel struggle involved the rivalry of France with the Habsburgs of the empire and with the Habsburgs of Spain, who had been attempting to construct a cordon of anti-French alliances.
The principal battlefield for all these intermittent conflicts was the towns and principalities of Germany, which suffered severely. During the Thirty Years’ War, many of the contending armies were mercenaries, many of whom could not collect their pay. This threw them on the countryside for their supplies, and thus began the “wolf-strategy” that typified this war. The armies of both sides plundered as they marched, leaving cities, towns, villages, and farms ravaged. When the contending powers finally met in the German province of Westphalia to end the bloodshed, the balance of power in Europe had been radically changed. Spain had lost not only the Netherlands but its dominant position in western Europe. France was now the chief Western power. Sweden had control of the Baltic. The United Netherlands was recognized as an independent republic. The member states of the Holy Roman Empire were granted full sovereignty. The ancient notion of a Roman Catholic empire of Europe, headed spiritually by a pope and temporally by an emperor, was permanently abandoned, and the essential structure of modern Europe as a community of sovereign states was established.
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