Royal Household of the United Kingdom, organization that provides support to the royal family of the United Kingdom. Its chief duties include assisting the monarch in carrying out the responsibilities of the head of state, organizing public ceremonies involving the royal family or royal residences, and maintaining and presenting the Royal Collection.

In all the medieval monarchies of western Europe the general system of government sprang from and centred in the royal household. The sovereign’s chief domestics, bearing titles suggestive of purely personal service, gradually became the great administrators of the realm. Thus, in England the lord chancellor was originally merely the head of the king’s writing office. Over time he became, as keeper of the great seal, responsible for the authentication of all major state documents and was, during the later Middle Ages, the principal officer of state. In France this primacy of position was achieved at about the same time by the constable, who, originally the master of the stables, became in due course commander in chief of the army. In modern times members of the Royal Household no longer hold government office but are concerned only with the organization of the various royal establishments and with personal and ceremonial attendance on the sovereign.

The medieval household

The early English poems which recall conditions of the migration age of the Anglo-Saxon tribes describe feasts in the king’s hall, where his praises were sung to the harp. As the migration age passed into the time of settled kingdoms, the king’s household appears as the centre of government and his hall its focus. Following their conversion to Christianity in the 7th century, Anglo-Saxon kings began to acquire a staff of learned clerks who could record their gifts to churches or to great men, the decisions of the king and his advisers, and the laws of the land. Very early in English history the royal household can be seen falling into three main divisions: the chapel with its staff of clerks, the hall where the daily life of the household was passed, and the chamber where the king could retire for sleeping and privacy and where his clothes, jewels, and muniments were stored. A similar threefold division can be seen in all the royal households of Europe and in the households of great magnates in every land.

In England no one officer stood out as head of the king’s household staff in the way that the mayor of the palace dominated the Frankish Merovingian court. King Eadred (946–955) regarded his seneschals, chamberlains, and butlers as his chief servants, and upon his death he bequeathed them 80 golden coins. No constable or marshal is mentioned in his will by name or office. From his time until the end of the Anglo-Saxon period a considerable anonymity among officeholders can be seen. From the reign of Canute (d. 1035) the Norse loan word staller was used to describe a man who had a permanent office in the king’s hall without indicating his relative status or exact duties. The indefiniteness of this title in no way indicates any lack of organization in the households of the last Saxon kings. The king’s writing office, which can be traced back to the reign of Athelstan (d. 939), was, indeed, the most efficient in Europe. It attracted foreign clerks to the king’s service and the Anglo-Saxon writ or royal letter had become an instrument of government. A successful royal clerk could hope to rise to a bishopric, but there is no adequate evidence that before the Norman Conquest the writing office was ever styled the chancery or its head the chancellor. The appearance of the chancellor at the head of an office called the chancery (from the cancella, or screen, which shut off the clerks from the main body of the king’s hall) is a development of the immediate post-Conquest generation, resulting from the immense pressure of work caused by the changes in land ownership after the Battle of Hastings.

No account of the household staff of the Norman kings was written down before the early years of Stephen’s reign (1135–54) when the Constitutio domus regis was compiled. Like the household ordinances of the later Middle Ages, it is primarily concerned with the daily wage in money and the allowance of bread, wine, and candles due to each household officer and ignores the fact that the less important royal servants generally held land of the king in sergeanty. The Constitutio begins with the royal chapel under the chancellor, who received the highest daily wage of all the king’s officers—5 shillings—whether he ate at the king’s expense or his own. His second-in-command, the master of the writing office, had received tenpence, but Henry I increased his wage to 2 shillings and gave him appropriate additions to his allowance of bread, wine, and candle ends.

The king’s hall was under the care of two officers of equal rank, the seneschal (steward) and the master butler, who each received a standing wage of 5 shillings a day. When they actually served in court and were fed at the king’s expense, their daily wage was 3 shillings 6 pennies. Their two parallel departments provided food and drink through a series of officers carefully graded as to pay and allowances down to the man who counted the loaves and the slaughterers who had no pay but “customary food” only.

After the hall came the chamber under the master chamberlain, but beside him stood the treasurer, each of these officers receiving the same pay and allowances as the seneschal and master butler. Below them were less well-paid chamberlains: the man who looked after the king’s bed with a man and a packhorse for its transport, the king’s tailor, and his bath attendant. The appearance here of the treasurer—as the head of the new financial department, the exchequer—shows that in origin the treasury was regarded as a household department. This does not mean that the treasure always traveled with the king. At Winchester a strong place had long been established for the receipt and custody of the king’s treasure, but it was staffed by household officers and was essentially a department of the household.

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The Constitutio concludes with the two departments which between them cared for the safety, peace, order, and comfort of the household and for the king’s sport. The chief constable had the same pay and allowances as the master chamberlain, but the marshal had not yet achieved the higher rate. He had to keep the tallies (that is, the receipts) for all the gifts and liveries made from the king’s treasury and chamber and oversee the hearthman who made the fire in the hall from Michaelmas to Easter.

The framework and many details of this organization continued to some extent from medieval into modern times. In the 1445 Ordinance of the Household, bread, wine, and ale “for the night” were still allowed to members of the household in accordance with their status. When the Constitutio was compiled the chancery and exchequer were still departments of the household. A hundred years later the enormous momentum of a developing nation had carried them out of court, and the household had been obliged to create a financial and clerical department of its own. Hence the gradual appearance in Henry II’s reign of the chamber as the department which received and spent money on household and national business. A generation later the Wardrobe appeared as a well-established department of the household, using the king’s small or privy seal for the conduct of business which might range over any matter concerning the king or kingdom.

The earliest household accounts come from John’s reign (1199–1216) and display the continual theme of public business, war, and politics running through the household’s daily life. In the reign of Henry III (1216–72) the king’s increasing dependence on his Wardrobe staff at the expense of the old great offices of state, the exchequer, and chancery was one of the causes of the Barons’ War. The barons failed to effect the reform of the household which they had planned. Edward I elaborated the organization of the Wardrobe so that able young men could regard service there as a desirable career.

Already at the beginning of the 12th century the chief household officers, important barons in their own right, had become too great to perform their household tasks as a matter of routine. On occasions of high ceremony, and in particular at a coronation, there was fierce competition among the greatest magnates of the land for the right to discharge any household duties which they could claim by inheritance. At a modern coronation the Anglo-Norman royal household for a moment once again comes to life.

Even Parliament was in origin itself a development of the royal household. When it began to appear in the 13th century it was no more than a meeting of the king’s council reinforced by representatives of the knights of the shires and the burgesses. Every European kingdom was growing richer, and the need to make a display before foreign ambassadors forced every ruler into more expenditure than resources could easily allow. From the late 13th century households were also set up for royal children.

The Middle Ages were punctuated by household ordinances (1318, 1323, 1445, 1454, 1471, 1478) which by insisting on economy and strict accounting had the common aim of enabling the king to pay his way. The Yorkist Edward IV (1461–83), enriched also with the lands of Lancastrian rebels, succeeded in achieving reasonable economy and magnificence, and his Tudor successors followed his example. Their household ordinances of 1493, 1526, and 1539–40 elaborated Edward IV’s reforms so effectively that until the 18th century the royal household was running on the lines then laid down. The semiofficial descriptions of England in the late 17th and 18th centuries depicted a royal household which in minutest detail was essentially that of the medieval sovereign. The six maids of honour of Queen Charlotte, wife of George III (1760–1820), correspond to the six “dauncelles” who attended Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI (1422–61).