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From Berlin the French advanced into Poland. Behind the Vistula were Lestocq’s Prussians and 55,000 Russians under Leonty Leontyevich, count von Bennigsen, who had occupied Warsaw and the right bank. There, Bennigsen awaited a further Russian army of 35,000 men under Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhöwden. On November 28, 1806, Bennigsen abandoned Warsaw without resistance to Murat, whom Napoleon had sent ahead with Davout, Jean Lannes, and Pierre-François-Charles Augereau. As the three remaining French corps became available, Napoleon directed Ney’s and Bernadotte’s toward Thorn (Torún) and Nicolas-Jean de Dieu Soult’s between Thorn and Warsaw. At Berlin, on November 19, Napoleon had informed a Polish deputation that he sympathized with their desire for the restoration of Poland. Although he was ready to recruit Polish assistance, he did not contemplate a thoroughgoing revival of the Polish state, which would have aroused further Russian enmity and Austrian opposition.

Bennigsen withdrew his forces to the Narew, principally around Pultusk, and was reinforced by Buxhöwden. On December 18, 1806, Napoleon himself reached Warsaw. After some indecisive engagements between December 22 and December 29 he gave up all hope of an effective pursuit of the retreating Russians and ordered his army into winter quarters. The combined Russian and Prussian forces had numbered about 115,000, of whom about 20,000 had been killed, wounded, and captured. The French had suffered approximately 5,000 casualties. Weather, terrain, and poor communications robbed the French of their mobility, and Napoleon was handicapped by the unfamiliar difficulty of feeding an army in an unfertile area whose resources the Russians had already exhausted.

Most of the French army was grouped in front of Warsaw. On the extreme left one corps was placed before Elbing (Elbląg), while another at Neidenburg (Nidzica) linked that force with the mass of the army. Outposts were established along the Passarge (Pasłeka), the Omulew, and as far south as the Bug. Ney, who had been ordered to push the Prussians northward late in December 1806, so exceeded his instructions that his troops had not reached winter quarters when Bennigsen advanced against the French left wing in the last days of January 1807. On January 25 Bernadotte concentrated his corps at Mohrungen (Morag), 8 miles (13 km) west of the Passarge, where he repulsed the numerically superior Russian advance guard before withdrawing southward toward Osterode (Ostroda). Anxious to appear in the rear of his enemy, Napoleon marched northward along the right bank of the Alle (Lyna) with three corps. He reached the Russians, who had retreated to the north between the Passarge and the Alle, at Göttkendorf (Gutkowo) on February 3, but night fell before a battle could be fought. By morning the Russians had decamped, abandoning their magazines on the Alle. The French continued their pursuit, and on February 7 their forward troops attacked the Russian rear guard outside Eylau, occupying the town that night. The Battle of Eylau was fought on the following day, February 8, 1807. The Russians suffered 25,000 casualties and were able to retreat in good order. The French, having had 28,000 casualties and being unable to pursue the Russians, fell back into winter quarters along the Passarge.

Great Britain and the Fourth Coalition

Though he had more than 600,000 men under arms in Europe altogether, Napoleon had barely 150,000 available for the war in East Prussia, and of those only 100,000 could be used for the decisive operations of summer 1807. Some 50,000 remained in Poland, protecting lines of communications and covering the 30,000 Russians disposed along the Narew. To the north, in East Prussia, there were 24,000 Prussians and 85,000 Russians by June 1807, and more Russian troops were expected. The allies, however, were not well placed to profit from the dispersal of Napoleon’s forces. While Russia was handicapped by having undertaken war against Persia (1804) and Turkey (1806), Great Britain’s practice of piecemeal warfare overseas precluded the dispatch of a strong expedition to help the eastern allies.

The progress of the campaign in East Prussia was obscured for the British by developments in South America. On June 27, 1806, a squadron under Sir Home Popham, with 1,600 troops, had captured Buenos Aires. Although the Spaniards had recovered the city in August the prospect of opening up new markets was so attractive to the British that a second expedition of 7,800 men under Sir John Whitelocke was sent out. Landing near Buenos Aires on June 28, 1807, it suffered such heavy losses in the assault on the city’s defenses that the project had to be abandoned. Failure had also overtaken the 6,000 troops sent from Sicily to Alexandria in March and the naval squadron dispatched in February to assist the Russians by attacking Constantinople.

It was not until April 26, 1807, that Russia and Prussia concluded the convention of Bartenstein (Bartoszyce), by which they undertook to make no separate peace treaties and to free Germany and Italy. The British proposed to grant Prussia a subsidy of £1,000,000 and to send an expeditionary force to Stralsund to join 16,000 Swedes in opposing the French, who had occupied Swedish Pomerania. Sweden, however, had signed an armistice with the French on April 18, and this truce lasted until July 3. When 8,000 British troops under William Cathcart disembarked at Rügen in mid-July, the Russians and Prussians, farther to the east, had already been defeated. The Fourth Coalition had come into being too late.

Friedland

Soon after the suspension of the winter campaign, Napoleon issued orders for the siege of Danzig (Gdańsk). The investment began on March 12, 1807, and the town was surrendered on May 26, offering a valuable base for operations. The French army had left winter quarters early in May to assemble behind the Passarge. On June 5 the Russians appeared before the French left wing. As Bennigsen’s opening moves traversed the French front, Napoleon grouped his forces.

On June 8, 1807, an encounter with 10,000 Russians suggested that the mass of the Russian army was around Guttstadt (Dobre Miasto), on which Napoleon proceeded to march and where on June 9 he dislodged the Russian rear guard. The Russians retreated to Heilsberg (Lidzbark Warmiński) on the Alle, where they had prepared an entrenched camp, 35 miles (56 km) south of Königsberg (Kaliningrad) and 27 miles (43 km) southwest of Friedland. Heavy fighting took place before Heilsberg on June 10, in which the French had the advantage. The next day Napoleon brought up the rest of his forces, trusting that the threat to their lines of retreat would make the Russians withdraw—as they did late in the evening. Bennigsen crossed to the right bank of the Alle, while Napoleon, anticipating that he would soon reappear on the left bank, headed north toward Eylau to place himself between the Russians on the Alle and the Prussians in front of Königsberg. On June 13 the French were massed close to Eylau, with strong detachments pushed forward in the direction of both Königsberg and Friedland. That evening it was learned that the Russians had crossed the Alle at Friedland, which Lannes had already been instructed to occupy next day. The Battle of Friedland, on June 14, ended with the crushing defeat of the Russians, who suffered 25,000 casualties. Meanwhile the corps detached to keep the Prussians away from the battlefield had driven Lestocq into Königsberg, which he abandoned on June 16, withdrawing his forces to join Bennigsen at Tilsit. Napoleon reached the Neman on June 19 and found the Russians ready for an armistice.

The Treaties of Tilsit

A variety of political motives, as well as his reverses in the field, prompted Alexander to make peace. Chief among them were his dissatisfaction with Great Britain and his belief that a French invasion of Russia would stimulate opposition to his regime. Yet Napoleon had not the means to contemplate an early invasion of Russia and had resolved, should Alexander remain in the war, to maintain his forces on the Neman and to await the eventual reappearance of the enemy army.

Alexander was ready to accept not only peace, but an alliance with France. He hoped to acquire the greater part of Turkey’s Balkan possessions, though Constantinople itself was not to fall to his share. Furthermore, an understanding with France and hostility toward Great Britain would give him the opportunity to pose as an arbiter of European affairs in common with Napoleon and to preserve Russia’s Polish lands. Though Napoleon would not agree to restore Prussia’s western territories in exchange for the cession of Polish provinces to Saxony and excluded Frederick William from the Franco-Russian negotiations and from the secret alliance signed at Tilsit on July 7, 1807, Russia lost nothing in the peace treaty of the same day.

The settlement between France and Prussia (July 9, 1807) furnished the spoils of the recent campaigns. Prussia was reduced to half its former population, losing all possessions west of the Elbe and almost all the territory gained in the three partitions of Poland. Danzig was to be a free city, garrisoned by the French, and Prussia was to be occupied by French forces until a heavy war indemnity had been paid. Further, Prussia agreed to close its ports to British trade and, if necessary, to join Russia and France in war against Great Britain.

The ceded territory west of the Elbe was distributed mostly between Murat’s grand duchy of Berg and the new kingdom of Westphalia (created for Jérôme Bonaparte in August 1807 and including also Brunswick and Hesse-Kassel). East Frisia went to Holland, and some other lands were left at Napoleon’s disposal. The bulk of the Polish provinces, with a population of 2,000,000, were made into the duchy of Warsaw for the king of Saxony, with a French garrison. Westphalia entered the Confederation of the Rhine, into which Mecklenburg and Oldenburg followed in 1808.