Since targets in this type of planning do not constitute orders to producers and consumers to do or not to do particular things, the plan has to take account of what private firms say they intend to do, or could do, during the period of the plan. Drafting a plan, therefore, requires arrangements for bringing the representatives of the private sector—both employers and workers—into the planning process. This is usually done by setting up a tripartite body (the High Planning Council in France, the Council for Economic Planning in Sweden, for example) where representatives of the private sector are brought together with representatives of the government.

Government departments in most countries draft programs several years in advance for expenditure on such public projects as education, road building, urban improvement, and hospital construction. But it often happens that these programs are not mutually consistent. One of the advantages of an overall plan is that the confrontation and coordination between the various programs has to be done in an explicit manner. The task can be difficult; watertight administrative compartments are not always easy to break down.

Efforts to incorporate into the plan all that can be known about the intentions of the private and public sectors need to be supplemented by more general economic analysis. As has been stressed already, the plan should be, above all, coherent; and the best way of ensuring this is to build up the planned targets within the framework of the national income accounts. Since World War II, such accounts have been drawn up on an annual basis in all the developed countries. From this it is only a step to projecting the national accounts for several years ahead.

Earlier types of economic planning leaned heavily upon the method of economic balances. This consists of setting out the quantities of economic resources that will be available during the plan period and comparing them with the quantities demanded by the plan. Four balances are of key importance: the demand for and supply of goods and services; of savings; of manpower; and of foreign exchange. The notion of balance is a valuable one in planning, since no plan can be successful if it outruns the available resources. The method has its difficulties, however, because of the numerous interactions among different sectors of the economy, with the consequence that an adjustment in one set of balances requires adjustments in the others—a complex and time-consuming process. The method of balances is also unable to throw light upon a more fundamental aspect of economic decision making, the need to choose among alternative courses of action on their own merits.

Other methods of planning that have in varying degree replaced the method of balances include mathematical model making and cost-benefit analysis. A mathematical model consists of a series of equations that describes the structure and working of the national economy, enabling various sets of targets to be “tried out” by feeding their values into a computer. It is too early, however, to claim for economic models any clear superiority over the more pragmatic method of economic balances. The most systematic use of models has been in the Netherlands and France. In the Scandinavian countries, a strong mathematical tradition among economists has favoured their adoption.

Cost-benefit analysis, sometimes known as the planning–programming–budgetary system (PPBS), represents an effort to improve the planning of government expenditures. Starting from the fact that public expenditures are not sensitive to the economic considerations of price and profitability but that they nevertheless use up scarce resources that have economic value, PPBS attempts to provide rules of calculation when deciding upon the allocation of these resources. A first step is to break down public expenditure into its main functions and to divide each of the latter into programs that can be identified with government policy objectives. Then an effort is made to evaluate the effectiveness of each program in achieving its declared objectives, together with a consideration of alternative ways of achieving the same objectives and the costs of those alternatives. The U.S. government pioneered in the application of PPBS to government activities in the 1960s. Great Britain introduced it in the Ministry of Defence in the late 1960s and then began to extend it to other departments, particularly in education and science. In France the government decided to apply the system in 1968, first in the Ministry of Defense and then in relation to energy, town planning, and such departments as posts and telegraph. By the early 1970s PPBS had become an integral tool of national economic planning.

In their planning, all the noncommunist countries leave a large margin of initiative to individual producers and consumers; i.e., they rely upon market mechanisms rather than upon direct controls. There is no contradiction between this state of affairs and the existence of a plan. First, as already noted, the fact of associating the private sector with the drafting of the plan encourages its representatives to be dynamic in their behaviour, a prerequisite for any successful growth policy. Second, when a plan is drafted in this way, all sectors are encouraged in making their own plans to adopt the same general assumptions about the growth of the economy. In France this aspect of planning is called “generalized market research.” Third, participation in drafting the plan can help to make the representatives of the employers and workers more conscious of existing obstacles to growth and encourage them to find constructive solutions for overcoming them.

But the government is not freed from participating actively in carrying out the plan. The government’s budget and its monetary policy must be used in such a way that overall demand rises as steadily as possible along the desired growth path. The problem of avoiding checks to growth caused by balance of payments difficulties is likely to call for special attention.

There is no easy solution to the problem of how to reconcile five- or six-year plans with the need to adjust economic policy to the phases of the business cycle. In Japan, a country that has experienced several sharp though brief recessions since the end of the postwar reconstruction period, governments are willing to cut back their public expenditure programs and to take restrictive fiscal and monetary measures because they believe that the economy will soon rebound once the restrictive measures have done their work. Japan’s remarkable economic growth has borne out this confidence. In the less-flexible economies of western Europe, governments are more circumscribed in their action. France, Germany, and the Netherlands have instituted systematic reviews of their plan targets every one or two years and are quite prepared to revise the targets if necessary. In addition to these general measures for implementing plans, some governments attempt to influence more directly the behaviour of private firms by granting depreciation allowances for investments and tax exemptions for some activities, such as expenditure on research.

But it is in the field of regional development policy that governments intervene most actively to influence the decisions of the private sector of the economy. There is widespread use in western Europe of tax incentives and grants from public funds to encourage private firms to expand in less-developed regions. Frequently, permission to set up a new factory, or to expand an existing one, in already congested areas where labour shortages are acute is refused. In addition, governments endeavour to stimulate growth in the less-developed areas by improving transport facilities, housing, and urban infrastructure generally. These efforts have not shown any significant success in raising incomes or reducing unemployment in the less-developed regions. This does not mean that the regional policies have been without effect, however, for without them the regional disparities might have worsened. Present-day plans for regional development attempt to concentrate on a few selected “growth points” where it is thought that favourable geographic characteristics or the presence of raw materials or other advantages offer the most hope of success.