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Constitutional framework
California is governed under a constitution that was framed in 1878–79, a period of rampant graft. It has been revised several times. Amendments instituted by Gov. Hiram Johnson in 1911 included provisions for voter initiative of and referendum on legislation, the recall of elected officials (used to oust a sitting governor in 2003), the direct primary, woman suffrage, and a unique system that allowed candidates to run in primaries of opposing political parties. Before a series of deletions began in 1966, it had grown to be one of the world’s longest governmental constitutions. Since 1962, revisions to the constitution could be made by voters without calling a convention, and most general ballots now contain dozens of propositions on issues that have included tax rates, affirmative action, bilingual education, and same-sex marriage. The methods under which primary elections are conducted in the state also have been subject to a number of ballot initiatives, including one in 2010 that created a system that calls for the two top vote getters in a primary, irrespective of party affiliation, to advance to the general election. The state government and local governments have also been increasingly subject to such initiatives, particularly in planning and zoning decisions and in tax issues.
The state’s chief executive is the governor, who is elected by universal suffrage to a four-year term; a governor may serve a maximum of two terms. Other state executive officers also are elected to four-year terms and are subject to term limits. Members of more than 30 boards and commissions are appointed by the governor. The legislature comprises the Senate, with 40 members, and the Assembly, with 80 members. Legislative dominance is held by populous southern California at the expense of rural areas.
The judicial system has traditionally consisted of five levels: the seven-member Supreme Court, district courts of appeal, and superior, municipal, and justice courts. Superior courts have been the major trial courts, whereas the more numerous municipal districts hear lesser matters. In 1998 voters approved a proposition that allowed judges in each county to unify their superior and municipal courts into a single superior court with overarching jurisdiction, subject to the approval of a majority of superior and municipal court judges within that county. By the middle of the first decade of the 21st century, the counties had unified their trial courts.
Local government is conducted through some 4,000 agencies, including 58 counties and a few hundred incorporated cities. Counties and cities may establish charters or accept general-law provisions and statutory laws. Counties that recognize general-law provisions conform to state law with respect to the number and duties of elected officials. Chartered counties have a limited degree of authority to set elections or to decide the term lengths and salaries of their officials. Unlike counties, cities operate under variations of the mayor-council-manager system, and they have broader revenue-generating authority than do counties. Los Angeles and San Francisco operate under mayors and elected councils, while San Diego and San Jose employ city managers, who assume a large share of administrative duty.
Volunteer party organizations often have usurped roles ordinarily fulfilled by the Democratic and Republican party structure. The parties are forbidden to endorse any candidate prior to the primary, but unofficial organizations do so and are often better funded and organized than the party structure. To overcome this party ineffectiveness, candidates turn to professional campaign managers to enhance their public images.
Attempts at machine politics have proved ineffectual in California because of voter mobility, lack of party entrenchment, and the prime role of civil service in bestowing jobs. The vastness of the state and the political cleavages between the liberal north and the conservative south make it difficult for one party to sweep statewide offices, even with majority registration. Traditional party alignments seem of minor significance to many Californians, and crossovers are common despite heavy Democratic pluralities in registration. Nevertheless, there was a perceptible change in party strength toward the end of the 20th century. Although the state had regularly voted for Republican presidential candidates from the 1960s to the 1980s (Californians Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan were elected president), it became a safely Democratic state in the 1990s and 2000s.
All federal military services have major facilities in California, affecting both the social and the economic life of the state. Recruit training is the major role of naval and Marine corps bases in San Diego. Camp Pendleton, a Marine base, encompasses the last large undeveloped area along the southern California coast. Air Force activity centers on Travis Air Force Base, east of Fairfield, and on various other air commands, including remote test facilities in the Mojave Desert. The climate and sparse settlement of the Mojave Desert have made it an ideal setting for aviation and ordnance testing. Long airstrips at Palmdale and at Edwards Air Force Base are important for the testing of new aircraft and for projects of the U.S. space program. Federal cuts in the 1990s forced numerous military base closings and generally devastated the defense and aerospace industries of California. The industries recovered somewhat in the early 21st century with increased military spending, especially for the Iraq War. Vandenberg Space Force Base on the central coast is a launch facility and test range for military, government, and commercial spacecraft.
Health and welfare
California long has been considered a liberal state in the extent of its health and welfare statutes. California’s medical-research facilities lead the country in several branches of medicine, notably oncology, immunology, and gerontology. State benefits offer aid to families with dependent children, to those with disabilities, and to senior citizens.