Basic astronomical data
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Jupiter has an equatorial diameter of about 143,000 km (88,900 miles) and orbits the Sun at a mean distance of 778 million km (483 million miles). The table shows additional physical and orbital data for Jupiter. Of special interest are the planet’s low mean density of 1.33 grams per cubic cm—in contrast with Earth’s 5.52 grams per cubic cm—coupled with its large dimensions and mass and short rotation period. The low density and large mass indicate that Jupiter’s composition and structure are quite unlike those of Earth and the other inner planets, a deduction that is supported by detailed investigations of the giant planet’s atmosphere and interior.
| Planetary data for Jupiter | |
|---|---|
| *Time required for the planet to return to the same position in the sky relative to the Sun as seen from Earth. | |
| **Calculated for the altitude at which 1 bar of atmospheric pressure is exerted. | |
| mean distance from Sun | 778,340,821 km (5.2 AU) |
| eccentricity of orbit | 0.048 |
| inclination of orbit to ecliptic | 1.3° |
| Jovian year (sidereal period of revolution) | 11.86 Earth years |
| visual magnitude at mean opposition | −2.70 |
| mean synodic period* | 398.88 Earth days |
| mean orbital velocity | 13.1 km/sec |
| equatorial radius** | 71,492 km |
| polar radius** | 66,854 km |
| mass | 18.98 × 1026 kg |
| mean density | 1.33 g/cm3 |
| gravity** | 2,479 cm/sec2 |
| escape velocity | 60.2 km/sec |
| rotation periods | |
| System I (±10° from equator) | 9 hr 50 min 30 sec |
| System II (higher latitudes) | 9 hr 55 min 41 sec |
| System III (magnetic field) | 9 hr 55 min 29 sec |
| inclination of equator to orbit | 3.1° |
| dimensions of Great Red Spot | 20,000 × 12,000 km |
| magnetic field strength at equator | 4.3 gauss |
| number of known moons | 66 |
| planetary ring system | 1 main ring; 3 less-dense components |
Three rotation periods, all within a few minutes of each other, have been established. The two periods called System I (9 hours 50 minutes 30 seconds) and System II (9 hours 55 minutes 41 seconds) are mean values and refer to the speed of rotation at the equator and at higher latitudes, respectively, as exhibited by features observed in the planet’s visible cloud layers. Jupiter has no solid surface; the transition from the gaseous atmosphere to the fluid interior occurs gradually at great depths. Thus the variation in rotation period at different latitudes does not imply that the planet itself rotates with either of these mean velocities. In fact, the true rotation period of Jupiter is System III (9 hours 55 minutes 29 seconds). This is the period of rotation of Jupiter’s magnetic field, first deduced from Earth-based observations at radio wavelengths (see below Radio emission) and confirmed by direct spacecraft measurements. This period, which has been constant for 30 years of observation, applies to the massive interior of the planet, where the magnetic field is generated.
The atmosphere
The clouds and the Great Red Spot
Even a modest telescope can show much detail on Jupiter. The region of the planet’s atmosphere that is visible from Earth contains several different types of clouds that are separated both vertically and horizontally. Changes in these cloud systems can occur over periods of a few hours, but an underlying pattern of latitudinal currents has maintained its stability for decades. It has become traditional to describe the appearance of the planet in terms of a standard nomenclature for its alternating dark bands, called belts, and bright bands, called zones. The underlying currents, however, seem to have a greater persistence than this pattern. For example, the south equatorial belt has faded away several times and has even totally disappeared (most recently in 2010), only to reappear months or years later.
The close-up views of Jupiter transmitted to Earth by spacecraft reveal a variety of cloud forms, including many elliptical features reminiscent of cyclonic and anticyclonic storm systems on Earth. All these systems are in motion, appearing and disappearing on time scales that vary with their sizes and locations. Also observed to vary are the pastel shades of various colours present in the cloud layers—from the tawny yellow that seems to characterize the main layer, through browns and blue-grays, to the well-known salmon-coloured Great Red Spot, Jupiter’s largest, most prominent, and longest-lived feature. Chemical differences in cloud composition, which astronomers presume to be the cause of the variations in colour, evidently accompany the vertical and horizontal segregation of the cloud systems.
Jovian meteorology can be compared with the global circulation of Earth’s atmosphere. On Earth huge spiral cloud systems often stretch over many degrees of latitude and are associated with motion around high- and low-pressure regions. These cloud systems are much less zonally confined than the cloud systems on Jupiter and move in latitude as well as longitude. Local weather on Earth is often closely tied to the local environment, which in turn is determined by the varied nature of the planet’s surface.
Jupiter has no solid surface—hence, no topographic features—and the planet’s large-scale circulation is dominated by latitudinal currents. The lack of a solid surface with physical boundaries and regions with different heat capacities makes the persistence of these currents and their associated cloud patterns all the more remarkable. The Great Red Spot, for example, moves in longitude with respect to all three of the planet’s rotation systems, yet it does not move in latitude. The white ovals found at a latitude just south of the Great Red Spot exhibit similar behaviour; white ovals of this size are found nowhere else on the planet. The dark brown clouds, evidently holes in the tawny cloud layer, are found almost exclusively near 18° N latitude. The strongest thermal emission is detected from blue-gray or purple areas that occur in the equatorial region of the planet. Observations from Juno showed that the poles are covered in swirling Earth-sized storms.
Nature of the Great Red Spot
The true nature of Jupiter’s unique Great Red Spot was still unknown at the start of the 21st century, despite extensive observations from the Voyager, Galileo, and Juno spacecrafts. On a planet whose cloud patterns have lifetimes often counted in days, the Great Red Spot has been continuously observed since 1878 and may even be the same storm that was observed from 1665 to 1713. From its maximum extent of about 48,000 km (30,000 miles) in the late 19th century, the spot has been shrinking, and since 2012 the spot, once decidedly oval, has become more circular and has been shrinking at an accelerated rate of 900 km (580 miles) per year. Its present size is about 16,350 km (10,159 miles) wide—large enough to accommodate Earth easily. These huge dimensions are probably responsible for the feature’s longevity and possibly for its distinct colour.
The rotation period of the Great Red Spot around the planet does not match any of Jupiter’s three rotation periods. It shows a variability that has not been successfully correlated with other Jovian phenomena. Voyager observations revealed that the material within the spot circulates in a counterclockwise direction once every seven days, corresponding to superhurricane-force winds of 400 km (250 miles) per hour at the periphery. The Voyager images also recorded a large number of interactions between the Great Red Spot and much smaller disturbances moving in the current at the same latitude. The interior of the spot is remarkably tranquil, with no clear evidence for the expected upwelling (or divergence) of material from lower depths.
The Great Red Spot, therefore, appears to be a huge anticyclone, a vortex or eddy whose diameter is presumably accompanied by a great depth that allows the feature to reach well below and well above the main cloud layers. The Red Spot is heating Jupiter’s upper atmosphere from below and making it hundreds of degrees hotter than would be expected from solar heating alone. The spot’s lower extension remains to be observed.