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In the late 16th century Manila was a walled Muslim settlement whose ruler levied customs duties on all commerce passing up the Pasig River. Spanish conquistadors under the leadership of Miguel López de Legazpi—first Spanish governor-general of the Philippines—entered the mouth of the river in 1571. They destroyed the settlement and founded the fortress city of Intramuros in its place. Manila became the capital of the new colony. Outside the city walls stood some scattered villages, each ruled by a local chieftain and each centred on a marketplace. As Spanish colonial rule became established, churches were built near the marketplaces, where the concentration of population was greatest. Manila spread beyond its walls, expanding north, east, and south, linking together the market–church complexes as it did so.
The propagation of Roman Catholicism began with the Augustinian friar Andrés de Urdaneta, who accompanied the expedition of 1571. He was followed by Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, and other Augustinian priests, who founded churches, convents, and schools. In 1574 Manila was baptized under the authorization of Spain and the Vatican as the “Distinguished and Ever Loyal City” and became the centre of Catholicism as well as of the Philippines.
At various periods Manila was seriously threatened, and sometimes occupied, by foreign powers. It was invaded by the Chinese in 1574 and raided by the Dutch in the mid-17th century. In 1762, during the Seven Years’ War, the city was captured and held by the British, but the Treaty of Paris (1763) resulted in its restoration to Spain. It was opened to foreign trade in 1832, and commerce was further stimulated by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
The Manila area became the centre of anti-Spanish sentiment in the 1890s, and the execution of Filipino patriot José Rizal in the city in December 1896 sparked a year-long insurrection. During the Spanish-American War the Spanish fleet was defeated at Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, and on August 13 the city surrendered to U.S. forces. It subsequently became the headquarters for the U.S. administration of the Philippines.
The U.S. period was one of general social and economic improvement for the city. U.S. policy encouraged gradual Filipino political autonomy, and to help achieve this goal public schools were established in Manila and throughout the archipelago. The University of the Philippines, founded in 1908, became the apex of the educational system. The city developed into a major trading and tourist centre.
Upon the outbreak of World War II, Manila was declared an open city and was occupied by the Japanese in January 1942. The city suffered little damage during the Japanese invasion but was leveled to the ground during the fight for its recapture by U.S. forces in 1945.
Manila was in shambles when in 1946 it became the capital of the newly independent Republic of the Philippines. The city was rapidly rebuilt, however, with U.S. aid. A significant change in its appearance was brought about by industrialization. In 1948 suburban Quezon City was chosen as the site of a new national capital, but in 1976 Manila again became the capital and the permanent seat of the national government.
Metropolitan Manila experienced rapid growth in the late 20th century, which helped establish it as a major economic centre in the Pacific region. The expansion, however, also brought pollution, traffic congestion, and overcrowding. The government took numerous measures to alleviate the problems, but they persisted into the 21st century. Another mounting concern was the rise in terrorism. Once largely confined to outlying regions, terrorist activities perpetrated primarily by militant Islamist and communist groups also have increased.