biological soil crust

biological soil crust, thin layer of living material formed in the uppermost millimetres of soil where soil particles are aggregated by a community of highly specialized organisms. Biological soil crusts are found primarily in open spaces in the dry and extremely cold regions of all continents, where harsh conditions inhibit vascular plant production. In many areas the crusts are extraordinarily well developed and can represent more than 70 percent of the living ground cover. Biological soil crusts are key for soil stabilization, water retention, and soil fertility and are recognized as having a major influence on global ecosystems.

Biological components of the crusts include cyanobacteria and other bacteria, microfungi, algae, lichens, and mosses. Cyanobacteria and green algae are generally the first to colonize bare ground, followed by lichens and mosses, which require stable soil strata for growth. The filamentous cyanobacteria of genus Microcoleus, which are commonly found in soil, provide much of the cohesive quality of the crusts. Those microbes secrete sticky mucilage around their cells and filaments. When moistened, they move through the soil and leave a trail of sticky mucilaginous sheath material behind that glues soil particles in place.

Biological soil crusts can be classified into four categories based on crust morphology: (1) flat, which occur in areas where freezing is rare and cyanobacteria dominate, (2) rugose, which occur in areas where freezing is rare and lichens or mosses dominate, (3) pinnacled, which are found in areas where freezing and frost heaving are common and cyanobacteria dominate, and (4) rolling, which prefer areas where freezing and frost heaving are common but lichens or mosses dominate.

Biological crust organisms possess adaptive strategies that allow them to survive in extreme habitats on Earth. For example, they have low moisture requirements and can survive on small amounts of rainfall, fog, and dew as water sources. They are poikilohydric (capable of drying out and suspending respiration for an extended period of time); when wet, their metabolic functions begin almost immediately. They also can tolerate extreme temperatures in a desiccated state.

Biological crusts carry out myriad ecological roles. They are important sources of fixed carbon in sparsely vegetated areas. Cyanobacteria and cyanolichens in the crusts convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic compounds that leak into surrounding soil, which is especially important in desert ecosystems where low soil nitrogen levels often limit plant growth. Crusts with roughened surfaces slow rainwater runoff and increase water infiltration into the soil. After sporadic rainfall, crust organisms and their mucilage absorb up to 10 times their volume in water and later release the water slowly into the soil.

When dry, cyanobacterial filaments, mosses, and lichens are brittle and crush easily. As a result, mechanical disturbances, such as from vehicles and trampling by people or animals, pose significant threats to biological crusts. After disturbance, biological crust recovery may take 250 to 1,000 years in very dry regions; even in places that are relatively moist, recovery can take 20 years.