partisanship, in democratic politics and government, a strong adherence, dedication, or loyalty to a political party—or to an ideology or agenda associated with a political party—usually accompanied by a negative view of an opposing party. Extreme partisanship is generally regarded as detrimental to the functioning of democratic governments, in part because of its typical basis in motivated reasoning and misperceptions of political reality. Among political leaders and officeholders, such “hyperpartisanship” is usually manifested in an unwillingness to cooperate or compromise on important matters with leaders and officeholders of another party. It may also be seen in “institutional warfare,” or the misuse of institutional authority for the purpose of undermining popular support for another party or preventing another party from governing effectively, even at the cost of harming the national interest. The attempted politicization of traditionally independent and apolitical government institutions is another signal of extreme partisanship. In the United States, partisan electoral strategies have included legal and illegal techniques of voter suppression and vote dilution—designed, respectively, to make voting difficult for adherents of another party and to ensure that another party is underrepresented in a legislature relative to its share of the total votes cast in a given election (see also gerrymandering). Partisanship among political leaders naturally encourages, and is encouraged by, partisanship among ordinary citizens, which is characterized in part by hostility and prejudicial attitudes toward members of another party. In cases of extreme partisanship, significant numbers of ordinary citizens as well as political leaders may believe that no government headed by another party can be legitimate or even that violence against governments headed by another party is justified. Extreme and long-lasting partisanship in a two-party system, known as political polarization, results in the division of a country’s entire population into two diametrically opposed political camps. Polarization of this sort can damage a country’s long-term interests, in part because the resulting dysfunction and gridlock make it difficult for any government to adequately address national problems. It can also pose a serious threat to democracy because it undermines the public’s trust in electoral institutions and weakens its commitment to democratic values and the rule of law.
(Read Britannica’s interview with Jimmy Carter on partisanship and world affairs.)
Despite these quite significant dangers, low to moderate levels of partisanship have been credited with positive effects by some political theorists. Among the benefits attributed to partisanship have been the facilitation of connections between political leaders and the public, the aggregation of related public opinions and interests, the relatively clear articulation of political problems and challenges and their possible solutions, the encouragement of political involvement by individual citizens and interest groups, and—assuming that political parties reasonably represent the interests of their partisans—a greater level of stability of government.
Partisanship has been a recurring feature of American politics since the founding of the country’s first political parties—the Federalist Party and the Republican (later Democratic-Republican) Party—in the early 1790s. Arguably, the most egregious and destructive partisan conflicts in U.S. history took place during the 1850s, when the newly founded Republican Party clashed with Southern Democrats over the extension of slavery into the western territories, which eventually led to the secession of 11 Southern states (1860–61) and the American Civil War (1861–65). Yet the United States has also experienced significant periods of regular, if not continuous, bipartisan cooperation and compromise. They include the so-called Era of Good Feelings (1815–25), which marked an end to the bitter struggles between the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties; the late 19th- and early 20th-century period following the end of Reconstruction (1865–77), when the Republican and Democratic parties reached a national compromise (the Compromise of 1877) that enabled Democrats to reinstitute white rule in Southern states and to impose harsh systems of racial segregation and discrimination (see Jim Crow law); and the period from the late 1930s, when a conservative U.S. Supreme Court finally accepted the constitutionality of key New Deal legislation, to the Watergate scandal of the 1970s, which ended with Pres. Richard Nixon’s resignation in the face of certain impeachment by a bipartisan majority of the House of Representatives.
In the early 1980s the United States entered a new period of ever-increasing partisanship with the rise to prominence of Republican Rep. Newt Gingrich, who vigorously opposed cooperation or compromise with Democrats, routinely condemned Democrats as immoral and traitorous, and urged a vision of politics as warfare, openly advocating the use of any legal means to obtain electoral and legislative victories. His approach led Republicans to regularly filibuster Democratic legislation in the Senate and to use their control of the House (from January 1995, when Gingrich became House speaker) to impeach Democratic Pres. Bill Clinton on charges that arguably did not constitute “high crimes and misdemeanors,” as the standard for impeachment of the president is articulated in the U.S. Constitution. (Clinton was charged with perjury and obstruction of justice in connection with a Republican-sponsored investigation into his extramarital affair with a White House intern.) In the view of many historians and political scholars, House Republicans had cheapened the power of impeachment by using it as a tool of partisan warfare. During the presidency of Republican George W. Bush (2001–09), Senate Democrats also engaged in partisan behaviour, regularly filibustering Republican legislation and blocking or delaying the confirmation of large numbers of Bush’s judicial nominees.
During the administration of Democratic Pres. Barack Obama (2009–17), partisanship grew even worse, as reflected in the right-wing “birther” movement, which promoted the false notion that Obama was not a natural-born U.S. citizen; in Senate Republicans’ routine blockades of Obama’s judicial nominees and executive appointments; and in Senate Democrats’ exercise of what was then called the “nuclear option,” a response to Republican blockades that effectively eliminated the filibuster for most presidential nominations. Notably, in 2016, Senate Republicans declined to even hold confirmation hearings for Obama’s Supreme Court nominee Merrick Garland, effectively depriving the president of his constitutional power to appoint members of the Court. In response to Republicans’ uniform opposition to his major legislative initiatives, Obama arguably exceeded the authority of his office by issuing multiple executive orders designed to achieve the same results, particularly in the area of immigration reform.
With the election of Republican Donald Trump as president in 2016, partisanship in the United States, in the opinion of many scholars, reached levels not seen since the 19th century. Trump crudely promoted resentment and hatred of the “Democrat party” and of any prominent Republican who dared to criticize him. He routinely dismissed negative press reports about himself as “fake news,” thereby encouraging his followers to trust only right-wing media outlets (particularly the Fox News Channel) and to rely on him and his political allies to tell them what was true. This strategy enabled Trump to regularly lie without fear of losing support among his followers and intimidated Republicans in Congress, and it greatly increased the mutual distrust and hostility between rank-and-file Republicans and Democrats and widened the already considerable gulf between their political worldviews. Trump’s harsh rhetoric brought the viewpoints of right-wing extremists and white supremacists into the political mainstream and encouraged intolerance and violence directed against racial and sexual minorities. His self-serving criticism of public safety measures made necessary by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 pandemic starting in 2020 (such as business and school closures, stay-at-home orders, and mandatory mask wearing) transformed the country’s pandemic response into a focus of partisan conflict. Among several other divisive actions, Trump repeatedly and falsely accused Democrats of plotting to rig the 2020 presidential election. Upon his loss in that contest to the Democratic candidate, Joe Biden, Trump announced that Democrats had stolen the election through massive voter fraud—an unsupported claim that several Republican members of Congress and state governors later endorsed or declined to criticize. Indeed, Republican-controlled state legislatures across the country soon appealed to that false accusation to justify new voter-suppression measures aimed at making voting more difficult for traditionally Democratic constituencies and to validate partisan control of local and statewide election administration. The country’s thorough polarization at the time was vividly illustrated on January 6, 2021, two weeks before Biden’s inauguration, when a mob of Trump supporters, having been incited by him, violently attacked the U.S. Capitol and temporarily halted Congress’s formal confirmation of Biden’s victory.