Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity, historical period spanning from the output of ancient Greek author Homer in the 8th century bce to the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century ce. It encompassed Greco-Roman culture, which played a major role in the Mediterranean sphere of influence and in the creation of Western civilization, shaping areas as diverse as law, architecture, art, language, poetry, rhetoric, politics, and philosophy.
The Archaic period began about 750 bce—following the so-called Greek Dark Age, which had been marked by the collapse of the socioeconomic system and the destruction of Mycenaean sites. During the Archaic period the Greek population increased, and the poleis (city-states) were established, including Athens, where Solon laid the foundations of democracy by introducing reforms to combat moral decline and economic debt. The period fostered the development of the Greek alphabet as well as a flowering of literature in the hands of poets such as Homer, author of the Iliad and Odyssey, and Archilochus, who introduced elegy and personal lyric poetry.
The Geometric style (c. 900–700bce) gave way to the “Orientalizing” style (c. 700–625), which was strongly influenced by the eastern Mediterranean cultural world (especially Egypt), underlining the intercultural interactions of the period. Both black-figure pottery and its subsequent red-figure counterpart played a significant role in the shaping of Archaic pottery. The standing youths kouros and kore exemplified developments in sculpture, while the Doric and Ionic orders were widespread in architecture. Major events included the first Ancient Olympic Games in 776, and the founding of Rome in 753.
The Classical period began in 510 bce with the overthrow of the Athenian tyrant Hippias. Cleisthenes, the founder of Athenian democracy, introduced isonomic institutions—based on equal rights, albeit solely for male citizens—and ostracism, whereby citizens could be expelled from the city for 10 years. His division of the city-state into 30 trittyes (tribal thirds) and 10 tribes is said to have fostered greater equality. The Greco-Persian Wars (492–449) brought many Greek city-states together in pursuit of a common goal and concluded with the defeat of the Achaemenian Empire and prompted the creation of the Delian League under the leadership of Athens. That city-state’s supremacy led to the Peloponnesian War (431–404), fought against Sparta, whose military dominance of the Mediterranean contrasted with the cultural prominence of Athens. The war ended with Sparta’s victory and imposition of the Thirty Tyrants (404–403) on Athens. However, Sparta’s time as the most powerful Greek polis was short lived. The 4th century witnessed the rise of Thebes and, in 337, the creation of the League of Corinth, led by Philip II of Macedon.
The cultural output of the Classical period has had a lasting influence on Western civilization. Classical architecture became monumental with structures such as the Parthenon, and major achievements in sculpture included Phidias’s statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In Athens theatre flourished with the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides and the comedies of Aristophanes. The period was also marked by the dialogues of Plato and the treatises of Aristotle. The latter’s pupil, Alexander the Great, would conquer lands beyond the Mediterranean, forging one of the greatest empires in history, which stretched from Macedonia to India.
The death of Alexander the Great in 323 bce marked the start of the Hellenistic Age, shaped by intense intercultural exchange, as exemplified by Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Buddhism, and the School of Alexandria. In art, emotional display and naturalistic detail were prominent features of the Pergamene school, associated with the city of Pergamum in Anatolia (Asia Minor). The well-known Nike of Samothrace and the Colossus of Rhodes were sculpted in this period. In philosophy, the period witnessed the development of Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Pyrrhonism, while theatre engendered New Comedy, as Koine Greek became the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world. Prominent mathematicians Euclid and Archimedes were from Alexandria and Syracuse, respectively, underlining the expansive Greek sphere of influence.
Meanwhile, Rome, which became a republic following the end of the monarchy in 509 bce, collected a series of victories that confirmed its status as a growing regional power. Among them were the defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars (264–146) and the defeat of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wars (3rd and 2nd centuries). The Romans built insulae, aqueducts, bridges, public baths, temples, forums and marketplaces. Under Augustus (reigned 27 bce–14 ce) the republic became an empire whose economic prosperity was fueled by the so-called Pax Romana, which fostered greater trade. Rome reached its greatest extent under the emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117). Its control of the Mediterranean and its status as an empire were confirmed by the profusion of spectacular feats of architecture, including the aqueduct in Segovia, Spain, and Hadrian’s Arch in Jordan. The crisis of the 3rd century presaged the downfall of the Western Roman Empire at the hands of Germanic barbarian tribes, yet this would not occur until 476, bringing the period of Classical antiquity to a close.