Anaximander (born 610 bce, Miletus [now in Turkey]—died 546 bce) was a Greek philosopher who was the first to develop a cosmology, or systematic philosophical view of the world.
Only a short fragment of Anaximander’s work survives, so reconstructions of his philosophy and astronomy must be based on summaries by later Greek writers, such as the 1st- or 2nd-century ce compiler of philosophical opinions Aëtius, the 3rd-century theologian and antipope Hippolytus, and the 6th-century Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius. Anaximander is said to have been a pupil or associate of the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus and to have written about astronomy, geography, and the nature of things. Anaximander set up a gnomon (a shadow-casting rod) at Sparta and used it to demonstrate the equinoxes and solstices and perhaps the hours of the day. He drew a map of the known world, which was later corrected by his fellow Milesian, the author Hecataeus, a well-traveled man. He may also have built a celestial globe.
In his thinking about Earth, he regarded the inhabited portion as flat, consisting of the top face of a cylinder, whose thickness is one-third its diameter. Earth is poised aloft, supported by nothing, and remains in place because it is equidistant from all other things and thus has no disposition to fly off in any one direction. He held that the Sun and the Moon are hollow rings filled with fire. Their disks are vents or holes in the rings, through which the fire can shine. The phases of the Moon, as well as eclipses of the Sun and the Moon, are due to the vents’ closing up.
Anaximander held an evolutionary view of living things. The first creatures originated from the moist element by evaporation. Man originated from some other kind of animal, such as fish, since man needs a long period of nurture and could not have survived if he had always been what he is now. Anaximander also discussed the causes of meteorological phenomena, such as wind, rain, and lightning.
In his cosmogony, he held that everything originated from the apeiron (the “infinite,” “unlimited,” or “indefinite”), rather than from a particular element, such as water (as Thales had held). Anaximander postulated eternal motion, along with the apeiron, as the originating cause of the world. This (probably rotary) motion caused opposites, such as hot and cold, to be separated from one another as the world came into being. However, the world is not eternal and will be destroyed back into the apeiron, from which new worlds will be born. Thus, all existing things must “pay penalty and retribution to one another for their injustice, according to the disposition of time,” as he rather figuratively expressed it.
While Thales had already dispensed with divine explanations of the world around him, he had not written a book about his philosophy. Moreover, Anaximander went much further in trying to give a unified account of all of nature. Although Anaximander’s primitive astronomy was soon superseded, his effort to provide a rational explanation of the world had a lasting influence.