infrared astronomy

infrared astronomy, study of astronomical objects through observations of the infrared radiation that they emit. Various types of celestial objects—including the planets of the solar system, stars, nebulae, and galaxies—give off energy at wavelengths in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum (i.e., from about one micrometre to one millimetre). The techniques of infrared astronomy enable investigators to examine many such objects that cannot otherwise be seen from Earth because the light of optical wavelengths that they emit is blocked by intervening dust particles.

Infrared astronomy originated in the early 1800s with the work of the British astronomer Sir William Herschel, who discovered the existence of infrared radiation while studying sunlight. The first systematic infrared observations of stellar objects were made by the American astronomers W.W. Coblentz, Edison Pettit, and Seth B. Nicholson in the 1920s. Modern infrared techniques, such as the use of cryogenic detector systems (to eliminate obstruction by infrared radiation released by the detection equipment itself) and special interference filters for ground-based telescopes, were introduced during the early 1960s. By the end of the decade, Gerry Neugebauer and Robert Leighton of the United States had surveyed the sky at the relatively short infrared wavelength of 2.2 micrometres and identified approximately 20,000 sources in the northern hemispheric sky alone. Since that time, balloons, rockets, and spacecraft have been employed to make observations of infrared wavelengths from 35 to 350 micrometres. Radiation at such wavelengths is absorbed by water vapour in the atmosphere, and so telescopes and spectrographs have to be carried to high altitudes above most of the absorbing molecules. Specially instrumented high-flying aircraft such as the Kuiper Airborne Observatoryand the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy have been designed to facilitate infrared observations near microwave frequencies.

In January 1983 the United States, in collaboration with the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, launched the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), an unmanned orbiting observatory equipped with a 57-centimetre (22-inch) infrared telescope sensitive to wavelengths of 8 to 100 micrometres. IRAS made a number of unexpected discoveries in a brief period of service that ended in November 1983. The most significant of these were clouds of solid debris around Vega, Fomalhaut, and several other stars, the presence of which strongly suggests the formation of planetary systems similar to that of the Sun. Other important findings included various clouds of interstellar gas and dust where new stars are being formed and an object, Phaeton, thought to be the parent body for the swarm of meteoroids known as Geminids.

IRAS was succeeded in 1995–98 by the European Space Agency’s Infrared Space Observatory, which had a 60-centimetre (24-inch) telescope with a camera sensitive to wavelengths in the range of 2.5–17 micrometres and a photometer and a pair of spectrometers that, between them, extended the range to 200 micrometres. It made significant observations of protoplanetary disks of dust and gas around young stars, with results suggesting that individual planets can form over periods as brief as 20 million years. It determined that these disks are rich in silicates, the minerals that form the basis of many common types of rock. It also discovered a large number of brown dwarfs—objects in interstellar space that are too small to become stars but too massive to be considered planets.

The most advanced infrared space observatory to date was a U.S. satellite, the Spitzer Space Telescope, which was built around an all-beryllium 85-centimetre (33-inch) primary mirror that focused infrared light on three instruments—a general-purpose infrared camera, a spectrograph sensitive to mid-infrared wavelengths, and an imaging photometer taking measurements in three far-infrared bands. Together the instruments covered a wavelength range of 3.6 to 180 micrometres. The most striking results from the Spitzer’s observations concerned extrasolar planets; Spitzer determined the temperature and the atmospheric structure, composition, and dynamics of several extrasolar planets. The telescope operated from 2003 to 2020.

Two large space telescopes are planned to succeed Spitzer. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) will be the largest space telescope at any wavelength, with a primary mirror 6.5 metres (21.3 feet) in diameter. The JWST will study forming stars and galaxies and is scheduled to be launched in 2021. The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope will have a 2.4-metre (7.9-foot) mirror and is scheduled for launch in 2025.