instrumentation, in technology, the development and use of precise measuring equipment. Although the sensory organs of the human body can be extremely sensitive and responsive, modern science and technology rely on the development of much more precise measuring and analytical tools for studying, monitoring, or controlling all kinds of phenomena.
Some of the earliest instruments of measurement were used in astronomy and navigation. The armillary sphere, the oldest known astronomical instrument, consisted essentially of a skeletal celestial globe whose rings represent the great circles of the heavens. The armillary sphere was known in ancient China; the ancient Greeks were also familiar with it and modified it to produce the astrolabe, which could tell the time or length of day or night as well as measure solar and lunar altitudes. The compass, the earliest instrument for direction finding that did not make reference to the stars, was a striking advance in instrumentation made about the 11th century. The telescope, the primary astronomical instrument, was invented about 1608 by the Dutch optician Hans Lippershey and first used extensively by Galileo.
Instrumentation involves both measurement and control functions. An early instrumental control system was the thermostatic furnace developed by the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1634), in which a thermometer controlled the temperature of a furnace by a system of rods and levers. Devices to measure and regulate steam pressure inside a boiler appeared at about the same time. In 1788 the Scotsman James Watt invented a centrifugal governor to maintain the speed of a steam engine at a predetermined rate.
Instrumentation developed at a rapid pace in the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in the areas of dimensional measurement, electrical measurement, and physical analysis. Manufacturing processes of the time required instruments capable of achieving new standards of linear precision, met in part by the screw micrometer, special models of which could attain a precision of 0.000025 mm (0.000001 inch). The industrial application of electricity required instruments to measure current, voltage, and resistance. Analytical methods, using such instruments as the microscope and the spectroscope, became increasingly important; the latter instrument, which analyzes by wave length the light radiation given off by incandescent substances, began to be used to identify the composition of chemical substances and stars.
In the 20th century the growth of modern industry, the introduction of computerization, and the advent of space exploration spurred still greater development of instrumentation, particularly of electronic devices. Often a transducer, an instrument that changes energy from one form into another (such as the photocell, thermocouple, or microphone) is used to transform a sample of the energy to be measured into electrical impulses that are more easily processed and stored. The introduction of the electronic computer in the 1950s, with its great capacity for information processing and storage, virtually revolutionized methods of instrumentation, for it allowed the simultaneous comparison and analysis of large amounts of information. At much the same time, feedback systems were perfected in which data from instruments monitoring stages of a process are instantaneously evaluated and used to adjust parameters affecting the process. Feedback systems are crucial to the operation of automated processes.
Most manufacturing processes rely on instrumentation for monitoring chemical, physical, and environmental properties, as well as the performance of production lines. Instruments to monitor chemical properties include the refractometer, infrared analyzers, chromatographs, and pH sensors. A refractometer measures the bending of a beam of light as it passes from one material to another; such instruments are used, for instance, to determine the composition of sugar solutions or the concentration of tomato paste in ketchup. Infrared analyzers can identify substances by the wavelength and amount of infrared radiation that they emit or reflect. Chromatography, a sensitive and swift method of chemical analysis used on extremely tiny samples of a substance, relies on the different rates at which a material will adsorb different types of molecules. The acidity or alkalinity of a solution can be measured by pH sensors.
Instruments are also used to measure physical properties of a substance, such as its turbidity, or amount of particulate matter in a solution. Water purification and petroleum-refining processes are monitored by a turbidimeter, which measures how much light of one particular wavelength is absorbed by a solution. The density of a liquid substance is determined by a hydrometer, which measures the buoyancy of an object of known volume immersed in the fluid to be measured. The flow rate of a substance is measured by a turbine flowmeter, in which the revolutions of a freely spinning turbine immersed in a fluid are measured, while the viscosity of a fluid is measured by a number of techniques, including how much it dampens the oscillations of a steel blade.
Instruments used in medicine and biomedical research are just as varied as those in industry. Relatively simple medical instruments measure temperature, blood pressure (sphygmomanometer), or lung capacity (spirometer). More complex instruments include the familiar X-ray machines and electroencephalographs and electrocardiographs, which detect electrical signals generated by the brain and heart, respectively. Two of the most complex medical instruments now in use are the CAT (computerized axial tomography) and NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) scanners, which can visualize body parts in three dimensions. The analysis of tissue samples using highly sophisticated methods of chemical analysis is also important in biomedical research.