Macedonia, ancient kingdom centred on the plain in the northeastern corner of the Greek peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Thérmai. In the 4th century bce it achieved hegemony over Greece and conquered lands as far east as the Indus River, establishing a short-lived empire that introduced the Hellenistic Age of ancient Greek civilization.
The cultural links of prehistoric Macedonia were mainly with Greece and Anatolia. A people who called themselves Macedonians are known from about 700 bce, when they pushed eastward from their home on the Haliacmon (Aliákmon) River under the leadership of King Perdiccas I and his successors. The origin and identity of this people are much debated and are at the centre of a heated modern dispute between those who argue that this people should be considered ethnically Greek and those who argue that they were not Greek or that their origin and identity cannot be determined (see Researcher’s Note: Macedonia: a contested name). This dispute hinges in part on the question of whether this people spoke a form of Greek before the 5th century bce; it is known, however, that by the 5th century bce the Macedonian elite had adopted a form of ancient Greek and had also forged a unified kingdom. Athenian control of the coastal regions forced Macedonian rulers to concentrate on bringing the uplands and plains of Macedonia under their sway—a task finally achieved by their king Amyntas III (reigned c. 393–370/369 bce).
Two of Amyntas’s sons, Alexander II and Perdiccas III, reigned only briefly. Amyntas’s third son, Philip II, assumed control in the name of Perdiccas’s infant heir, but, having restored order, he made himself king (reigned 359–336) and raised Macedonia to a predominant position in Greece.
Philip’s son Alexander III (Alexander the Great; reigned 336–323) overthrew the Achaemenian (Persian) Empire and expanded Macedonia’s dominion to the Nile and Indus rivers. On Alexander’s death at Babylon his generals divided up the satrapies (provinces) of his empire and used them as bases in a struggle to acquire the whole. From 321 to 301 warfare was almost continual. Macedonia itself remained the heart of the empire, and its possession (along with the control of Greece) was keenly contested. Antipater (Alexander’s regent in Europe) and his son Cassander managed to retain control of Macedonia and Greece until Cassander’s death (297), which threw Macedonia into civil war. After a six-year rule (294–288) by Demetrius I Poliorcetes, Macedonia again fell into a state of internal confusion, intensified by Galatian marauders from the north. In 277 Antigonus II Gonatas, the capable son of Demetrius, repulsed the Galatians and was hailed as king by the Macedonian army. Under him the country achieved a stable monarchy—the Antigonid dynasty, which ruled Macedonia from 277 to 168.
Under Philip V (reigned 221–179) and his son Perseus (reigned 179–168), Macedonia clashed with Rome and lost. (See Macedonian Wars.) Under Roman control Macedonia at first (168–146) formed four independent republics without common bonds. In 146, however, it became a Roman province with the four sections as administrative units. Macedonia remained the bulwark of Greece, and the northern frontiers saw frequent campaigning against neighbouring tribes. Toward 400 ce it was divided into the provinces of Macedonia and Macedonia secunda, within the diocese of Moesia.