scientific modeling

scientific modeling, the generation of a physical, conceptual, or mathematical representation of a real phenomenon that is difficult to observe directly. Scientific models are used to explain and predict the behaviour of real objects or systems and are used in a variety of scientific disciplines, ranging from physics and chemistry to ecology and the Earth sciences. Although modeling is a central component of modern science, scientific models at best are approximations of the objects and systems that they represent—they are not exact replicas. Thus, scientists constantly are working to improve and refine models.

The purpose of scientific modeling varies. Some models, such as the three-dimensional double-helix model of DNA, are used primarily to visualize an object or system, often being created from experimental data. Other models are intended to describe an abstract or hypothetical behaviour or phenomenon. For example, predictive models, such as those employed in weather forecasting or in projecting health outcomes of disease epidemics, generally are based on knowledge and data of phenomena from the past and rely on mathematical analyses of this information to forecast future, hypothetical occurrences of similar phenomena. Predictive models hold significant value for society because of their potential role in warning systems, such as in the case of earthquakes, tsunamis, epidemics, and similar large-scale disasters. However, because no single predictive model can account for all the variables that may affect an outcome, scientists must make assumptions, which can compromise the reliability of a predictive model and lead to incorrect conclusions.

The limitations of scientific modeling are emphasized by the fact that models generally are not complete representations. The Bohr atomic model, for example, describes the structure of atoms. But while it was the first atomic model to incorporate quantum theory and served as a basic conceptual model of electron orbits, it was not an accurate description of the nature of orbiting electrons. Nor was it able to predict the energy levels for atoms with more than one electron.

In fact, in the attempt to fully understand an object or system, multiple models, each representing a part of the object or system, are needed. Collectively the models may be able to provide a more complete representation, or at least a more complete understanding, of the real object or system. This is illustrated by the wave model of light and the particle model of light, which together describe the wave-particle duality in which light is understood to possess both wave and particle functions. The wave theory and the particle theory of light were long considered to be at odds with one another. In the early 20th century, however, with the realization that particles behave like waves, the two models for these theories were acknowledged as complementary, a step that greatly facilitated new insights in the field of quantum mechanics.

There are numerous applications for scientific modeling. For example, in the Earth sciences, modeling of atmospheric and ocean phenomena is relevant for not only weather forecasting but also scientific understanding of global warming. In the latter case, one model of note is the general circulation model, which is used for simulating human- and non-human-induced climate change. Modeling of geologic events, such as convection within Earth and theoretical movements of Earth’s plates, has advanced scientists’ knowledge of volcanoes and earthquakes and of the evolution of Earth’s surface. In ecology, modeling can be used to understand animal and plant populations and the dynamics of interactions between organisms. In the biomedical sciences, physical (material) models, such as Drosophila flies and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, are used to investigate the functions of genes and proteins. Likewise, three-dimensional models of proteins are used to gain insight into protein function and to assist with drug design. Scientific modeling also has applications in urban planning, construction, and the restoration of ecosystems.