parkinsonism, a group of chronic neurological disorders characterized by progressive loss of motor function resulting from the degeneration of neurons in the area of the brain that controls voluntary movement.
Parkinsonism was first described in 1817 by the British physician James Parkinson in his “Essay on the Shaking Palsy.” Various types of the disorder are recognized, but the disease described by Parkinson, called Parkinson disease, is the most common form. Parkinson disease is also called primary parkinsonism, paralysis agitans, or idiopathic parkinsonism, meaning the disease has no identifiable cause. This distinguishes it from secondary parkinsonism, a group of disorders very similar in nature to Parkinson disease but that arise from known or identifiable causes. The onset of Parkinson disease typically occurs between the ages of 60 and 70, although it can occur before the age of 40. It is rarely inherited. Parkinson disease often begins with a slight tremor of the thumb and forefinger, sometimes called “pill-rolling,” and slowly progresses over 10 to 20 years, resulting in paralysis, dementia, and death.
All types of parkinsonism are characterized by four main signs, including tremors of resting muscles, particularly of the hands; muscular rigidity of the arms, legs, and neck; difficulty in initiating movement (bradykinesia); and postural instability. A variety of other features may accompany these characteristics, including a lack of facial expression (known as “masked face”), difficulty in swallowing or speaking, loss of balance, a shuffling gait, depression, and dementia.
Parkinsonism results from the deterioration of neurons in the region of the brain called the substantia nigra. These neurons normally produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, which sends signals to the basal ganglia, a mass of nerve fibres that helps to initiate and control patterns of movement. Dopamine functions in the brain as an inhibitor of nerve impulses and is involved in suppressing unintended movement. When dopamine-producing (dopaminergic) neurons are damaged or destroyed, dopamine levels drop and the normal signaling system is disrupted. In both primary and secondary parkinsonism, the physiological effects of this deterioration do not manifest until roughly 60 to 80 percent of these neurons are destroyed.
While the cause of deterioration of the substantia nigra in primary parkinsonism remains unknown, deterioration in secondary parkinsonism can result from trauma induced by certain drugs, exposure to viruses or toxins, or other factors. For example, a viral infection of the brain that caused a worldwide pandemic of encephalitis lethargica (sleeping sickness) just after World War I resulted in the development of postencephalitic parkinsonism in some survivors. Toxin-induced parkinsonism is caused by carbon monoxide, manganese, or cyanide poisoning. A neurotoxin known as MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine), previously found in contaminated heroin, also causes a form of toxin-induced parkinsonism. The ability of this substance to destroy neurons suggests that an environmental toxin similar to MPTP may be responsible for Parkinson disease. Pugilistic parkinsonism results from head trauma and has affected professional boxers such as Jack Dempsey and Muhammad Ali. The parkinsonism-dementia complex of Guam, which occurs among the Chamorro people of the Pacific Mariana Islands, is also thought to result from an unidentified environmental agent. In some individuals genetic defects are thought to incur susceptibility to the disease. Genetic factors appear to be particularly important in primary parkinsonism, although in most cases, genetic variations are not believed to be the sole factors giving rise to the disease. Parkinsonism-plus disease, or multiple-system degenerations, includes diseases in which the main features of parkinsonism are accompanied by other symptoms. Parkinsonism may appear in patients with other neurological disorders such as Huntington disease, Alzheimer disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.
Both medical and surgical therapies are used to treat parkinsonism. In primary parkinsonism, the medication levodopa (L-dopa), a precursor of dopamine, is used in conjunction with the medication carbidopa to alleviate symptoms, although this treatment tends to become less effective over time. Other medications used are selegiline, a type of drug that slows the breakdown of dopamine, and bromocriptine and pergolide, two drugs that mimic the effects of dopamine. Surgical procedures are used to treat parkinsonism patients who have failed to respond to medications. Pallidotomy involves destroying a part of the brain structure called the globus pallidus that is involved in motor control. Pallidotomy may improve symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. Cryothalamotomy destroys the area of the brain that produces tremors by the inserting a probe into the thalamus. Restorative surgery is an experimental technique that replaces the lost dopaminergic neurons of the patient with dopamine-producing fetal brain tissue.