phalanx, in military science, tactical formation consisting of a block of heavily armed infantry standing shoulder to shoulder in files several ranks deep. Fully developed by the ancient Greeks, it survived in modified form into the gunpowder era and is viewed today as the beginning of European military development.
The ancient Sumerian army fielded a standard six-man-deep phalanx; the first line went into battle carrying large, rectangular shields, and the troops bore heavy pikes and battle axes. During the 7th century bc the Greek city-states adopted a phalanx eight men deep. The Greek hoplite, the heavy-armed infantryman who manned the phalanx, was equipped with a round shield, a heavy corselet of leather and metal, greaves (shin armour), an 8-foot pike for thrusting, and a 2-foot double-edged sword. Since the phalanx held in solid ranks and was divided only into the centre and wings, there was generally little need for an officer corps; the whole line advanced in step to the sound of the flute. Such a formation encouraged cohesion among advancing troops and presented a frightening spectacle to the enemy, but it was difficult to maneuver and, if penetrated by enemy formations, became little more than a mob.
The basic Greek formation was made more flexible by Philip II of Macedon and his son, Alexander III the Great. Alexander’s core unit in the phalanx was the syntagma, normally 16 men deep. Each soldier was armed with the sarissa, a 13- to 21-foot spear; in battle formation, the first five ranks held their spears horizontally in front of the advancing phalanx, each file being practically on the heels of the men in front. The remaining 11 ranks presumably held their spears vertically or rested them on the shoulders of those in front. On both sides of the syntagma, lending mobility as well as protection, was the light infantry, a disciplined force of archers, slingers, and javelin men. Protecting the flanks and poised to charge the enemy’s weak points was heavy cavalry, armed with sword and javelin. Squadrons of light horse were used for scouting and skirmishing.
From the founding of their city-state until the close of the 2nd century bc, the Romans found the Greek-style phalanx suitable for fighting in the plains of Latium. The basic weapon for this formation was a thrusting spear called the hasta; from this the heavy infantry derived its name, hastati, retaining it even after Rome abandoned the phalanx for the more flexible legion.
For a millennium after the fall of Rome, massed infantry was swept from the field by heavy cavalry, but in the 15th century, Swiss burghers and peasants, fighting for their freedom in Alpine valleys where cavalry had little room to maneuver, brought about a return of the phalanx. This consisted of one-fifth missile weapons (chiefly the crossbow), one-fifth spears, and three-fifths halberds (eight-foot shafts with the blade of an ax, the point of a spear, and a hook for pulling a rider out of the saddle). Discarding all armour except for the helmet and cuirass, the Swiss were able to march 30 miles a day and attack with a celerity and discipline that were disconcerting to their adversaries.
In the 16th century, Spanish troops armed with pike and harquebus introduced the first phalanx of the gunpowder age—solid columns of infantry known as battles. Usually the harquebusiers were drawn up on the corners of battles 25 ranks deep. After firing at the word of command, each rank withdrew to the rear to reload under cover of the pikemen and gradually moved forward by successive volleys until its turn came again. When the enemy’s ranks were broken by firepower, the pikemen evolved from square into line and advanced, shoulder to shoulder, in a massive charge calculated to sweep the field.