axiom of choice

axiom of choice, statement in the language of set theory that makes it possible to form sets by choosing an element simultaneously from each member of an infinite collection of sets even when no algorithm exists for the selection. The axiom of choice has many mathematically equivalent formulations, some of which were not immediately realized to be equivalent. One version states that, given any collection of disjoint sets (sets having no common elements), there exists at least one set consisting of one element from each of the nonempty sets in the collection; collectively, these chosen elements make up the “choice set.” Another common formulation is to say that for any set S there exists a function f (called a “choice function”) such that, for any nonempty subset s of S, f(s) is an element of s.

The axiom of choice was first formulated in 1904 by the German mathematician Ernst Zermelo in order to prove the “well-ordering theorem” (every set can be given an order relationship, such as less than, under which it is well ordered; i.e., every subset has a first element [see set theory: Axioms for infinite and ordered sets]). Subsequently, it was shown that making any one of three assumptions—the axiom of choice, the well-ordering principle, or Zorn’s lemma—enabled one to prove the other two; that is to say, all three are mathematically equivalent. The axiom of choice has the feature—not shared by other axioms of set theory—that it asserts the existence of a set without ever specifying its elements or any definite way to select them. In general, S could have many choice functions. The axiom of choice merely asserts that it has at least one, without saying how to construct it. This nonconstructive feature has led to some controversy regarding the acceptability of the axiom. See also foundations of mathematics: Nonconstructive arguments.

The axiom of choice is not needed for finite sets since the process of choosing elements must come to an end eventually. For infinite sets, however, it would take an infinite amount of time to choose elements one by one. Thus, infinite sets for which there does not exist some definite selection rule require the axiom of choice (or one of its equivalent formulations) in order to proceed with the choice set. The English mathematician-philosopher Bertrand Russell gave the following succinct example of this distinction: “To choose one sock from each of infinitely many pairs of socks requires the Axiom of Choice, but for shoes the Axiom is not needed.” For example, one could simultaneously choose the left shoe from each member of the infinite set of shoes, but no rule exists to distinguish between the members of a pair of socks. Thus, without the axiom of choice, each sock would have to be chosen one by one—an eternal prospect.

Nonetheless, the axiom of choice does have some counterintuitive consequences. The best-known of these is the Banach-Tarski paradox. This shows that for a solid sphere there exists (in the sense that the axioms assert the existence of sets) a decomposition into a finite number of pieces that can be reassembled to produce a sphere with twice the radius of the original sphere. Of course, the pieces involved are nonmeasurable; that is, one cannot meaningfully assign volumes to them.

In 1939 the Austrian-born American logician Kurt Gödel proved that, if the other standard Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms (ZF; see the Click Here to see full-size tabletable) are consistent, then they do not disprove the axiom of choice. That is, the result of adding the axiom of choice to the other axioms (ZFC) remains consistent. Then in 1963 the American mathematician Paul Cohen completed the picture by showing, again under the assumption that ZF is consistent, that ZF does not yield a proof of the axiom of choice; that is, the axiom of choice is independent.

In general, the mathematical community accepts the axiom of choice because of its utility and its agreement with intuition regarding sets. On the other hand, lingering unease with certain consequences (such as well-ordering of the real numbers) has led to the convention of explicitly stating when the axiom of choice is utilized, a condition not imposed on the other axioms of set theory.