shipping

shipping, the transporting of goods and passengers by water. Described as the backbone of global trade, maritime shipping is responsible for the transport of the majority of raw materials, components, and finished products that drive the economy. Efficient and relatively low-cost, transoceanic shipping permits the efficient import and export of goods and supports the livelihoods of billions of people. In the first quarter of the 21st century, the global fleet of container ships, tankers, and dry bulk ships were responsible for transporting about 80 percent of world trade volume and about 70 percent of trade value.

Early civilizations, which arose by waterways, depended on watercraft for transport. The Egyptians were probably the first to use seagoing vessels (c. 1500 bce); the Phoenicians, Cretans, Greeks, and Romans also relied on waterways. In Asia, Chinese ships equipped with multiple masts and a rudder were making sea voyages by about 200 ce; from as early as the 4th century bce the Chinese also relied heavily on internal waterways to transport food to their large cities (see Grand Canal). Japan, too mountainous to rely on roads for mass transport, also relied on internal and coastal waterways for shipping from early in its history.

The spice trade was a great stimulus to shipping trade; Arabians were sailing to the so-called Spice Islands of the East Indies before the Christian era, and European merchant marines grew up largely because of it. The tea trade had a similar effect, as did the discovery of gold in the New World. The development of shipping as a means of international trade shaped the formation of port cities in coastal regions across the globe. See also British East India Co.; Dutch East India Co.; French East India Co.

From the 17th to the 19th century, the slave trade was a major feature of Atlantic shipping and was responsible for the growth of the shipping fleets of a number of countries. It is estimated that there were more than 12,000 ships making over 40,000 voyages across the Atlantic during this time period. Prior to the 1600s, Portuguese merchants dominated the transatlantic slave trade, while the Dutch became the foremost traders of enslaved people during parts of the 1600s. English and French merchants controlled about half of the transatlantic slave trade in the 1700s, and an agreement between Spain and Britain granted the British a monopoly on the trade of enslaved people with the Spanish colonies. Nearly three-fifths of the total volume of the transatlantic slave trade took place during the 18th century, when the largest numbers of enslaved people were taken to the Americas and fleets based in the New World grew dramatically.

Following the abolition of slavery and the rise of the second Industrial Revolution, the U.S. and England were the ascendant shipping nations in the 19th century; Germany, Norway, Japan, the Netherlands, and France joined them in the early 20th century, with Greece dominating the industry by the century’s end. In the early 21st century, a number of Asian countries were listed among the top shipping nations, including China, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. Many of the most important modern shipping routes are near-coastal and transoceanic, though major rivers, canals, and inland waterways are also economically important.

The economic importance of the shipping industry is not without significant environmental costs. Nearly all commercial shipping vessels run on fossil fuels, and the global shipping industry is thus a major contributor to the greenhouse gas emissions driving anthropogenic climate change. Fuel and sewage pollution from vessels into marine environments is also a concern. Given that many marine animals, especially whales and dolphins, rely on sound for communication and navigation and to locate prey, noise pollution from shipping activities harms wildlife and negatively impacts ocean ecosystems. Ship strikes are also a major cause of whale mortality. The indiscriminate release of ballast water (water used to help stabilize a ship) once cargo has been off-loaded is a common practice and has led to the introduction of invasive plants and animals into novel ecosystems.