Bāṭinīyah, Muslim sects—the Ismailis (Arabic: Ismāʿīlīyah), in particular—that interpreted religious texts exclusively on the basis of their hidden, or inner, meanings (Arabic: bāṭin) rather than their literal meanings (ẓāhir). This type of interpretation gained currency about the 8th century among certain esoteric Shīʿite sects, especially the Ismailis, a religiously and politically schismatic group. The Ismailis believed that beneath every obvious or literal meaning of a sacred text lay a secret, hidden meaning, which could be arrived at through taʾwīl (allegorical interpretations); thus, every statement, person, or object could be scrutinized in this manner to reveal its true intent. They further stated that Muḥammad was only the transmitter of the literal word of God, the Qurʾān, but it was the imam (leader) who was empowered to interpret, through taʾwīl, its true, hidden meaning.
Speculative philosophy and theology eventually influenced the Bāṭinīyah, though they remained at all times on the side of esoteric knowledge; some Ṣūfīs (Muslim mystics) were also placed among the Bāṭinīyah for their insistence that there was an esoteric body of doctrine known only to the initiate. Although the Ismailis had always acknowledged the validity of both bāṭin and ẓāhir, about the 12th century this balance was upset by the Nusairis (Nuṣayrīyah) and the Druze, who accepted only the hidden meanings and exalted the imam to extraordinary heights.
Sunnite (traditionalist) Muslim scholars condemned the Bāṭinīyah for all interpretations that rejected the literal meaning and accused them of producing confusion and controversy through a multiplicity of readings; this, the Sunnites alleged, allowed ignorant or mischievous persons to claim possession of religious truths and thus deceive those who lacked the knowledge to expose them. The Bāṭinīyah were further labeled by the Sunnites as enemies of Islām, bent upon destroying the Sunnites’ conception of the faith. See also tafsīr.