spring, in hydrology, opening at or near the surface of the Earth for the discharge of water from underground sources. A spring is a natural discharge point of subterranean water at the surface of the ground or directly into the bed of a stream, lake, or sea. Water that emerges at the surface without a perceptible current is called a seep. Wells are holes excavated to bring water and other underground fluids to the surface.
Water in springs, seeps, and wells generally originates as rainfall that has soaked into the soil and percolated into underlying rocks. Permeable rocks (those containing interconnected pore spaces through which water can migrate), such as limestone and sandstone, store and transmit water and are called aquifers. Sometimes the water in an aquifer becomes confined between two impermeable rock layers, such as clay or shale. When these strata are tilted or folded into a structural trap, the water in the lower part of the aquifer is stored under pressure. If the pressure is sufficiently high and a well is sunk through the capping layer, the water will rise to the surface without pumping. This is called an artesian well.
The aquifers that receive and discharge the largest quantities of groundwater are unconsolidated materials such as sand and gravel. These aquifers occur widely and discharge groundwater partly through springs, but mostly through evaporation and seepage. Well water is obtained mostly from such aquifers, particularly those underlying lowland areas. In limestone regions, rainwater sinks through holes or other openings and is drained chiefly through underground passages. Basalt and sandstone aquifers are also sources of water for many springs. Most of the springs whose individual discharges exceed 3 cubic metres per second (100 cubic feet per second) originate from limestone and basalt aquifers.
Springs can be classified by their water temperature. A thermal or hot spring has a water temperature significantly higher than the mean air temperature of the surrounding area. Thermal springs occur in volcanic regions and in areas where rock layers have been broken and folded in geologically recent time. Geysers, a spectacular form of hot spring, eject tall plumes of hot water and steam. Springs containing a noticeable amount of dissolved substances are called mineral springs. Most thermal springs are rich in dissolved minerals while many mineral springs are warm.
The quality of water discharged by a spring depends on the type of aquifer and rock strata through which the water has passed, the temperatures along the route, and the volume of circulating water, past and present. Groundwater is least modified where it travels shallowly over short distances through pervious formations depleted of soluble minerals. Sand and gravel aquifers in humid regions yield good-quality water, whereas water from springs and seeps in arid areas may be contaminated by undesirable mineral deposits. The water quality in sedimentary rocks of marine origin depends on the degree of freshwater flushing. After the brine has been washed away, limestone and sandstone rocks usually yield good-quality, though hard, freshwater.