vanadium

vanadium (V), chemical element, silvery white soft metal of Group 5 (Vb) of the periodic table. It is alloyed with steel and iron for high-speed tool steel, high-strength low-alloy steel, and wear-resistant cast iron.

Vanadium was discovered (1801) by the Spanish mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río, who named it erythronium but eventually came to believe it was merely impure chromium. The element was rediscovered (1830) by the Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström, who named it after Vanadis, the Scandinavian goddess of beauty and youth, a name suggested by the beautiful colours of vanadium’s compounds in solution. The English chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe first isolated the metal in 1867 by hydrogen reduction of vanadium dichloride, VCl₂, and the American chemists John Wesley Marden and Malcolm N. Rich obtained it 99.7 percent pure in 1925 by reduction of vanadium pentoxide, V₂O₅, with calcium metal.

Found combined in various minerals, coal, and petroleum, vanadium is the 22nd most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Some commercial sources are the minerals carnotite, vanadinite, and roscoelite. (Deposits of the important vanadium-bearing mineral patronite occurring in coal at Mina Ragra, Peru, have been materially depleted.) Other commercial sources are vanadium-bearing magnetite and flue dust from smokestacks and boilers of ships burning certain Venezuelan and Mexican oils. China, South Africa, and Russia were the leading producers of vanadium in the early 21st century.

Vanadium is obtained from ores as vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) through a variety of smelting, leaching, and roasting processes. The pentoxide is then reduced to ferrovanadium or vanadium powder. The preparation of very pure vanadium is difficult because the metal is quite reactive toward oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon at elevated temperatures.

Vanadium metal, sheet, strip, foil, bar, wire, and tubing have found use in high-temperature service, in the chemical industry, and in bonding other metals. Because the major commercial use of vanadium is in steel and cast iron, to which it lends ductility and shock resistance, most of the vanadium produced is used with iron as ferrovanadium (about 85 percent vanadium) in making vanadium steels. Vanadium (added in amounts between 0.1 and 5.0 percent) has two effects upon steel: it refines the grain of the steel matrix, and with the carbon present it forms carbides. Thus, vanadium steel is especially strong and hard, with improved resistance to shock. When the very pure metal is required, it may be obtained by processes similar to those for titanium. Very pure vanadium metal resembles titanium in being quite corrosion resistant, hard, and steel gray in color.

Vanadium compounds (pentoxide and certain vanadates) are used as catalysts in the contact process for manufacturing sulfuric acid; as oxidation catalysts in the syntheses of phthalic and maleic anhydrides; in the manufacture of polyamides such as nylon; and in the oxidation of such organic substances as ethanol to acetaldehyde, sugar to oxalic acid, and anthracene to anthraquinone.

Natural vanadium consists of two isotopes: stable vanadium-51 (99.76 percent) and weakly radioactive vanadium-50 (0.24 percent). Nine artificial radioactive isotopes have been produced. Vanadium dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and aqua regia. In the massive state it is not attacked by air, water, alkalies, or nonoxidizing acids other than hydrofluoric acid. It does not tarnish in air readily but when heated combines with nearly all nonmetals. For vanadium the important oxidation states are +2, +3, +4, and +5. The oxides corresponding to the four oxidation states are VO, V₂O₃, VO₂, and V₂O₅. The hydrogen-oxygen compounds of vanadium in the two lower oxidation states are basic; in the two higher, amphoteric (both acidic and basic). In aqueous solution the ions exhibit different colours depending on the oxidation state—lavender in the +2 state, green in the +3 state, blue in the +4 state, and yellow in the +5 state.