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The algal cell
Algal cells are eukaryotic and contain three types of double-membrane-bound organelles: the nucleus, the chloroplast, and the mitochondrion. In most algal cells there is only a single nucleus, although some cells are multinucleate. In addition, some algae are siphonaceous, meaning the many nuclei are not separated by cell walls. The nucleus contains most of the genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), of the cell. In most algae, the molecules of DNA exist as linear strands that are condensed into obvious chromosomes only at the time of nuclear division (mitosis). However, there are two taxonomically contentious classes of algae, Dinophyceae and Euglenophyceae, in which the nuclear DNA is always condensed into chromosomes. In all algae, the two membranes that surround the nucleus are referred to as the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope typically has specialized nuclear pores that regulate the movement of molecules into and out of the nucleus.
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis, the complex set of biochemical reactions that use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars. Each chloroplast contains flattened, membranous sacs, called thylakoids, that contain the photosynthetic light-harvesting pigments, the chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins (see below Photosynthesis).
The mitochondria are the sites where food molecules are broken down and carbon dioxide, water, and chemical bond energy are released, a process called cellular respiration (see below Cellular respiration). Photosynthesis and respiration are approximately opposite processes, the former building sugar molecules and the latter breaking them down. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion is infolded to a great extent, and this provides the surface area necessary for respiration. The infoldings, called cristae, have three morphologies: (1) flattened or sheetlike, (2) fingerlike or tubular, and (3) paddlelike. The mitochondria of land plants and animals, by comparison, generally have flattened cristae.
Chloroplasts and mitochondria also have their own DNA. However, this DNA is not like nuclear DNA in that it is circular (or, more correctly, in endless loops) rather than linear and therefore resembles the DNA of prokaryotes. The similarity of chloroplastic and mitochondrial DNA to prokaryotic DNA has led many scientists to accept the hypothesis of endosymbiosis, which states that these organelles developed as a result of a long and successful symbiotic association of prokaryote cells inside eukaryote host cells.
Algal cells also have several single-membrane-bound organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, contractile or noncontractile vacuoles, and, in some, ejectile organelles. The endoplasmic reticulum is a complex membranous system that forms intracellular compartments, acts as a transport system within the cell, and serves as a site for synthesizing fats, oils, and proteins. The Golgi apparatus, a series of flattened, membranous sacs that are arranged in a stack, performs four distinct functions: it sorts many molecules synthesized elsewhere in the cell; it produces carbohydrates, such as cellulose or sugars, and sometimes attaches the sugars to other molecules; it packages molecules in small vesicles; and it marks the vesicles so that they are routed to the proper destination. The lysosome is a specialized vacuole that contains digestive enzymes that break down old organelles, cells or cellular components during certain developmental stages, and particulate matter that is ingested in species that can engulf food. Peroxisomes specialize in metabolically breaking down certain organic molecules and dangerous compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide, that may be produced during some biochemical reactions. Vacuoles are membranous sacs that store many different substances, depending on the organism and its metabolic state. Contractile vacuoles are specialized organelles that regulate the water content of cells and are therefore not involved in the long-term storage of substances. When too much water enters the cells, contractile vacuoles serve to eject it. Some algae have special ejectile organelles that apparently act as protective structures. The Dinophyceae has harpoonlike trichocysts beneath the cell surface that can explode from a disturbed or irritated cell. Trichocysts may serve to attach prey to algae cells before the prey is consumed. Ejectosomes are structures that are analogous to ejectile organelles and are found in the class Cryptophyceae. Several classes of algae in the division Chromophyta have mucous organelles that secrete slime. Gonyostomum semen, a freshwater member of the class Raphidophyceae, has numerous mucocysts, which, when such cells are collected in a plankton net, discharge and render the net and its contents somewhat gummy.
The nonmembrane-bound organelles of algae include the ribosomes, pyrenoids, microtubules, and microfilaments. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, where genetic information in the form of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is translated into protein. The ribosomes accurately interpret the genetic code of the DNA so that each protein is made exactly to the genetic specifications. The pyrenoid, a dense structure inside or beside chloroplasts of certain algae, consists largely of ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, one of the enzymes necessary in photosynthesis for carbon fixation and thus sugar formation. Starch, a storage form of glucose, is often found around pyrenoids. Microtubules, tubelike structures formed from tubulin proteins, are present in most cells. In many algae, microtubules appear and disappear as needed. Microtubules provide a rigid structure, or cytoskeleton, in the cell that helps determine and maintain the shape of the cell, especially in species without cell walls. Microtubules also provide a sort of “rail” system along which vesicles are transported. The spindle apparatus, which separates the chromosomes during nuclear division, consists of microtubules. Finally, certain kinds of microtubules also form the basic structure, or axoneme, of a flagellum, and they are a major component of the root system that anchors a flagellum within the cell. Microfilaments are formed by the polymerization of proteins such as actin, which can contract and relax and therefore function as tiny muscles inside the cells.