aurora, luminous phenomenon of Earth’s upper atmosphere that occurs primarily in high latitudes of both hemispheres; in the Northern Hemisphere auroras are called aurora borealis, aurora polaris, or northern lights, and in the Southern Hemisphere they are called aurora australis or southern lights.

A brief treatment of auroras follows. For full treatment, see ionosphere and magnetosphere.

Auroras are caused by the interaction of energetic particles (electrons and protons) of the solar wind with atoms of the upper atmosphere. Such interaction is confined for the most part to high latitudes in oval-shaped zones that surround Earth’s magnetic poles and maintain a more or less fixed orientation with respect to the Sun. During periods of low solar activity, the auroral zones shift poleward. During periods of intense solar activity, auroras occasionally extend to the middle latitudes; for example, the aurora borealis has been seen as far south as 40° latitude in the United States. Auroral emissions typically occur at altitudes of about 100 km (60 miles); however, they may occur anywhere between 80 and 250 km (about 50 to 155 miles) above Earth’s surface.

More From Britannica

Jupiter: The auroras of Jupiter

Auroras take many forms, including luminous curtains, arcs, bands, and patches. The uniform arc is the most stable form of aurora, sometimes persisting for hours without noticeable variation. However, in a great display, other forms appear, commonly undergoing dramatic variation. The lower edges of the arcs and folds are usually much more sharply defined than the upper parts. Greenish rays may cover most of the sky poleward of the magnetic zenith, ending in an arc that is usually folded and sometimes edged with a lower red border that may ripple like drapery. The display ends with a poleward retreat of the auroral forms, the rays gradually degenerating into diffuse areas of white light.

Auroras receive their energy from charged particles traveling between the Sun and Earth along bundled ropelike magnetic fields. Electrons and other charged particles, which are released by coronal mass ejections, solar flares, and other emanations from the Sun, are driven outward by the solar wind. Some electrons are captured by Earth’s magnetic field (see geomagnetic field) and conducted along magnetic field lines downward toward the magnetic poles. Alfvén waves—which are generated in the dayside and nightside regions of the magnetosphere and in the region of the magnetosphere called the magnetotail—push these electrons along and accelerate them up to 72.4 million km (45 million miles) per hour. They collide with oxygen and nitrogen atoms, knocking away electrons from these atoms to leave ions in excited states. These ions emit radiation at various wavelengths, creating the characteristic colours (red or greenish blue) of the aurora.

In addition to Earth, other planets in the solar system that have atmospheres and substantial magnetic fields—i.e., Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—display auroral activity on a large scale. Auroras also have been observed on Jupiter’s moon Io, where they are produced by the interaction of Io’s atmosphere with Jupiter’s powerful magnetic field.