Territorial behavior

Territorial behavior occurs in many animals and is especially widespread in mammals. Both visual and chemical signals may be used to advertise the territory to other animals. Antelope have a variety of exocrine glands, the secretions of which may be used in communication. However, the preorbital glands, located on the side of the face with an opening just in front of the eyes, are the best known in relation to territorial behavior. In species such as the South African bontebok, the preorbital glands are larger in males than in females. The secretions of these glands are extremely complex, containing over 40 compounds, and are deposited on grass culms (stems) or twigs at territory borders by pressing the head down onto the culm so that it enters the opening of a pore, alternating between left and right glands. In species such as Thomson’s gazelle, this results in an appreciable accumulation of the secretion on the grass or twig. Bontebok appear to transfer the secretion to their horns and forehead by waving the head from side to side across the stalk bearing the secretion.

For scents to be effective as territorial markers, individuals must be able to distinguish their own scent from the scents of other species and from the scents of individuals of the same species. The scents must persist for some time and must also change with time, enabling a recipient to judge whether a scent derives from a recent intruder or a past intruder. The complexity of the secretions probably contributes both to individual variation and to changes with time. It is likely that volatile components are lost more rapidly than nonvolatile components, causing the quantitative composition of the scent to change in a predictable way.

In addition to scent marking from the preorbital glands, many antelope mark territorial boundaries with fecal middens. These serve both as visual markers and as substrates for glandular secretions. Animals often urinate at the same time that they defecate. In addition, territorial male bontebok paw dung patches, possibly adding the secretion of the pedal glands to the dung. Similar to the preorbital gland secretions, the pedal gland secretions are very complex, and bontebok contain over 80 compounds of different classes. Territorial males habitually defecate at the same sites, and they do so frequently. Male oribi may defecate up to eight times in an hour, presumably to maintain the odor quality of the middens.

Carnivores also mark their territories by scent. Civets, found in Africa, southern Europe, and Asia, secrete material from anal glands. The major ingredient, called civet, or civetone, is an unusual compound, with 17 carbon atoms that form a ring. Musk deer produce a similar compound (with 15 carbon atoms in a ring), and both compounds were widely used in perfumery until similar synthetic compounds were produced.

Little is known about the perception of chemical marker compounds, although the vomeronasal organ (Jacobson organ) is suspected to play an important role. As with sex-attractant pheromones, marking pheromones can provide cues that animals use to locate prey or hosts. For example, the klipspringer, a South African antelope, is the host for a bloodsucking tick called Ixodes matopi. The antelope marks its territory with secretion from its preorbital gland, and adult ticks aggregate on these marks, presumably using odor to find them. This behavior increases their chances of finding the appropriate host.

Individual recognition

Among social animals it is very common for individuals to be able to recognize each other, and chemoreception plays an important role in this behavior. Social insects, such as termites, bees, wasps, and ants, are able to distinguish between nest mates and individuals from other colonies. This often depends on small differences in the proportions of different components in the insects’ surface wax. Social wasps make their nests of paper, which is produced by chewing wood. Some of the wax rubs off the bodies of the workers and onto the nest. The composition of this wax plays a key role in enabling workers to distinguish members of their own colony from intruders. Other insects called inquilines, which habitually live with ants, depend on acquiring the wax characteristics of the ant colony in order to avoid being attacked by the ants.

In mammals, individual recognition is often achieved via the odor of urine. Urine and other body odors are partly controlled by genes in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which also governs certain immune responses. Mice have about 50 linked genetic variations (polymorphisms) in this complex. Some of the proteins produced by these genes occur in the urine and contribute to the chemical signature of each individual. However, because the proteins are not volatile, they cannot contribute directly to the odor, and their precise role is not understood. In rats, bacteria from the gut play a key role in the development of odor specificity. This does not appear to be the case in mice. Rats, mice, and humans prefer the odors of individuals with a histocompatibility complex different from their own; thus, mating tends to occur between individuals with different MHCs. In order to detect different MHCs, an individual must be aware that a potential partner has a distinct smell. In mice the odor of the family in which they are reared becomes imprinted early in development. (Imprinting is the process by which young animals develop a lasting association with a particular feature in the environment.) If a pup is reared by a foster mother with her own pups, the pup imprints onto the odor of the foster family. This family odor is the odor against which the pup will compare the odor of a potential mate, once the pup is mature. This means that the pup does not make the comparison with its own genetically determined odor.

Homing

Many animals have specific places, such as nests or dens or, on a larger scale, geographical locations, to which they return periodically, often to breed. This homing behavior may involve vision or an electromagnetic sense. However, in some animals olfaction plays a significant role, often in conjunction with one of the other senses. These instances depend on a learned knowledge and memory of environmental odors, although, despite multiple studies, in no case has the nature of the odor been well characterized. Animals known to use odor in homing include fishes, reptiles, amphibians, and birds.

Salmon breed in fresh water, usually in the upper reaches of streams or in lakes. They remain in fresh water, generally for a year or more, varying to some extent with the species, and then they migrate to the sea. They remain in the sea to feed, often for two or three years, before returning to fresh water to breed. The most extraordinary aspect of this migration is that the vast majority—more than 90 percent—of fish return to the streams in which they passed their early development. This is important because, over many generations, the fish become adapted to the particular characteristics of their home stream, increasing the probability that the young will survive. (Today, because of a number of environmental factors, such as dams and overfishing, the number of fish returning to their home streams is decreasing.)

The factors involved in directing the salmon to the correct stream system from the sea are not known, although geomagnetic orientation or steering by the position of the Sun may be involved. However, once the fish has entered its own stream system, olfaction is involved in finding the original spawning sites. During early development, the chemical characteristics of the home stream become imprinted on the young salmon. The chemicals arise from the substrate and vegetation of the stream and from the immediate environment—factors that give every stream a specific chemical signature. In addition, chemicals produced by other salmon may contribute to the chemical signature of a stream, since chemical production is known to vary between salmon populations. Research has shown that Coho salmon can become imprinted to specific chemicals.

Imprinting only occurs during a specific period of an animal’s life and is usually thought to be something that occurs in the animal’s brain. However, in the case of salmon, changes in the sensitivity of the olfactory receptors are important, but the increase in sensitivity to the environment-specific odor does not occur until the salmon is ready to return to its home waters, two or more years after imprinting occurred.

Two hormones regulate these processes. The timing of imprinting coincides with an increase in activity of thyroxine, a thyroid hormone, early in the fish’s life, and it is presumed that this leads to changes in the sensory cells of the olfactory epithelium. The level of this hormone in the blood depends partly on the age of the fish and partly on environmental conditions. As a result, the timing of imprinting may vary from place to place. However, the increase in sensitivity of these cells does not occur until the salmon makes its return journey. The timing coincides with an increase in levels of reproductive hormones in the fish’s blood, and these hormones probably regulate the changes in the olfactory system. The increased sensitivity results, at least partly, from an increase in the activity of the second-messenger system involved in the transduction of a specific chemical signal into an electrical signal. Changes may also occur in the type or number of receptor proteins involved in detection of the chemicals, but this is not known with certainty. It is probable that homing by sea turtles is dependent on imprinting of some chemical characteristics of the natal beach in the hatchling stages.

Homing pigeons use olfaction as part of their navigation system, apparently depending on trace amounts of gases. However, if they have previous experience of an area, they appear able to navigate using visual and geomagnetic signals alone. It is likely that other migrant birds also use their memories of odors in navigation.