In 1957, while doing a theoretical study of gas chromatographic columns, Marcel J.E. Golay, as a consultant for the Perkin-Elmer Corporation, concluded that a very long column (90 to 180 metres [300 to 600 feet]) of narrow-diameter tubing (internal diameter of 0.25 millimetres [0.0098 inch]) with its wall coated with a thin film of liquid would yield superior separations. Fortunately, at about this same time, detectors with extremely low limits of detection became available, which could sense the small sample sizes required by these new columns. These capillary, or Golay, columns, now called open-tubular columns and characterized by their open design and an internal diameter of less than one millimetre, had an explosive impact on chromatographic methodology. It is now possible to separate hundreds of components of a mixture in a single chromatographic experiment.
Molecular sieves are porous substances that trap a mobile-phase gas. Large molecules cannot enter the pores, and so they flow largely unimpeded through the system. Small molecules are interrupted in their migration as they meander in and out of the pores by diffusion. Molecules of intermediate sizes show different rates of migration, depending on their size. In 1959 Per Flodin and Jerker Porath in Sweden developed cellulose polymeric materials that acted as molecular sieves for substances dispersed in liquids. This extended the molecular weight range of chromatography to polypeptides, proteins, and high-molecular-weight polymers. The generic term for such separations is size-exclusion chromatography.
In 1964 the American chemist J. Calvin Giddings, referring to a theory largely worked out for gas chromatography, summarized the necessary conditions that would give liquid chromatography the resolving power achievable in gas chromatography—that is, very small particles with a thin film of stationary phase in small-diameter columns. The development of the technique now termed high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) depended on (1) the development of pumps that would deliver a steady stream of liquid at high pressure to the column to force the liquid through the narrow interstitial channels of the packed columns at reasonable rates, and (2) detectors that would sense the small sample sizes mandated. At first, only adsorptive solids were used as the stationary phase, because liquid coatings were swept away by the mobile phase. Previously gas chromatography had employed chemical bonding of an organic stationary phase to solids to reduce adsorptive activity; István Halász of Germany exploited these reactions to cause a separation based on liquid solution effects in the bonded molecular layers. These and similar reactions were employed to give firmly attached molecules that acted as a thin film of solvent in liquid systems. These bonded phases gave high-performance liquid chromatography such scope and versatility that the technique is now the dominant method for separations.
Ion exchangers are natural substances—for example, certain clays—or deliberately synthesized resins containing positive ions (cation exchangers) or negative ions (anion exchangers) that exchange with those ions in solution having a greater affinity for the exchanger. This selective affinity of the solid is called ion, or ion-exchange, chromatography. The first such chromatographic separations were reported in 1938 by T.I. Taylor and Harold C. Urey, who used a zeolite. The method received much attention in 1942 during the Manhattan Project as a means of separating the rare earths and transuranium elements, fission products of uranium, and other elements produced by thermonuclear explosions. Ion-exchange chromatography can be applied to organic ion separations and has particular importance for the separation of amino and nucleic acids.
As early as 1879, the solubility of solids in gases at high pressure had been observed. In 1958 the British scientist James Lovelock suggested that gases above their critical temperature (i.e., the temperature above which the appearance of a liquid phase cannot be produced by increasing the pressure) might be used at high pressure as mobile phases. A substance in this state is termed a supercritical fluid. At very high pressure, the density of the fluid can be 90 percent or more of the liquid density. The German chemist Ernst Klesper and his colleagues working at Johns Hopkins University were the first to report separation of the porphyrins with dense gases in 1962. Carbon dioxide at 400 atmospheres is a typical supercritical-fluid mobile phase. (One atmosphere equals 760 millimetres, or 29.92 inches, of mercury; standard sea-level pressure is one atmosphere.) In an extreme case, Giddings and his group used gases at pressures of up to 2,000 atmospheres to chromatograph carotenoids, sugars, nucleosides, amino acids, and polymers. Supercritical-fluid chromatography bridges a gap between gas chromatography and liquid chromatography. In gas chromatography, concentration of solutes in the gas phase is achieved with increased temperature. Supercritical-fluid chromatography achieves this result with increased pressure so that thermally unstable compounds may be analyzed. Additional advantages include increased speed and resolution.
A technique exhibiting great selectivity, affinity chromatography, was first described by Pedro Cuatrecasas and his coworkers in 1968. In these separations, a biomolecule such as an enzyme binds to a substrate attached to the solid phase while other components are eluted. The retained molecule can subsequently be eluted by changing the chemical conditions of the separation.
Another separation technique is based on the fact that the velocity of a fluid through a tube is not uniform. In the region immediately adjacent to the wall the fluid is nearly stationary. At distances farther from the wall, the velocity increases, reaching a maximum value at the centre of the channel. In 1966 Giddings conceived the idea that a field, electrical or gravitational, might be used to selectively attract particles to the wall, where they will move slowly through the system. Diffusion away from the high concentrations at the wall into faster inner streams would enhance migration. The net effect would yield differential migration. A thermal gradient between two walls has also been used. This technique is called field-flow fractionation. It has been termed one-phase chromatography because there is no stationary phase. Its main applications are to polymers and particulate matter. The method has been used to separate biological cells, subcellular particles, viruses, liposomes, protein aggregates, fly ash, colloids, and pigments.
The battery of chromatographic techniques, along with field-flow fractionation, provides separations from the level of hydrogen molecules to particulates, encompassing a 1015-fold mass range. An analogous mass range is one of grains of sand to boulders.