Combustion phenomena and classification

Premixed flames

Flame combustion is most prominent with fuels that have been premixed with an oxidant, either oxygen or a compound that provides oxygen, for the reaction. The temperature of flames with this mixture is often several thousand degrees. The chemical reaction in such flames occurs within a narrow zone several micrometres thick. This combustion zone is usually called the flame front.

Dilution of the burning mixture with an inert gas, such as helium or nitrogen, lowers the temperature and, consequently, the reaction rate. Great amounts of inert gas extinguish the flame, and the same result is achieved when substances that remove any of the active species are added to the flame. Conditions must be such that the flame is fixed at the burner nozzle or in the combustion chamber; this positioning is required in many practical uses of combustion. Various devices, such as pilot flames and recirculation methods, are designed for this purpose.

The principal quantitative characteristic of a flame is its normal, or fundamental, burning velocity, which depends on the chemical and thermodynamic properties of the mixture and on pressure and temperature, under given conditions of heat loss. The burning velocity value ranges from several centimetres to even tens of metres per second. The dependence of the burning velocity on molecular structure, which is responsible for fuel reactivity, is known for a great many fuel-air mixtures.

A widely applied thermal theory, one of the first flame propagation theories, implies that combustion proceeds primarily at temperatures close to the maximum the flame can achieve. A set of differential equations developed for thermal conductivity and diffusion is reduced to one equation that yields the burning velocity value. Further development of the theory has been made, and computers now make most simplifications unnecessary.

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According to thermal theories, flame propagation is accounted for by heat energy transport from the combustion zone to the unburned mixture, which raises the temperature of the mixture. Diffusion theory assumes that thermodynamic equilibrium sets in behind the flame front at a maximum temperature and that radicals produced in this zone diffuse into the unburned mixture and ignite it. Both heat transport and diffusion of active particles must be considered essential for ignition.

Diffusion flames

Diffusion flames, smoothly flowing (laminar) or turbulent, belong to the class of flames whose ingredients are not mixed prior to entering the burning zone. Molecular or turbulent diffusion is responsible for the mixing of the gases in such flames. The distribution of the combustible material and of oxygen over various flame cross sections is regular in laminar flames but becomes much more complicated in turbulent gas flows. The transition from laminar to turbulent flames occurs at a certain point of the flow and depends upon the actual conditions.

Industrial flames, including those activated in furnaces, belong to the turbulent diffusion type. The theory of diffusion flames, however, is less advanced than that of premixed flames and, since gas intermixing is mainly responsible for the structure and the features of diffusion flames, the theory operates more in terms of physics and thermodynamics than chemical reactions. Flames such as those of candles, of liquid droplets, and of many propellants and condensed fuels are diffusion flames.

Oxidizing and reducing flame

When a premixed flame burns in open air with an excess of fuel, there appears in addition to the flame zone a zone of diffusion flame; this is accounted for by the diffusion of atmospheric oxygen, as, for example, in the Bunsen flame produced by a burner to which the air intake can be regulated, thereby altering the flow from an intensely hot one—in which most of the fuel gases are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water—to a relatively low temperature flux in which most of the fuel gas is only partially oxidized. Such flames consist of an inner core and an outer cone—two zones in which different chemical reactions take place, the reducing and oxidizing zones, respectively. The oxidizing nature of the outer cone is due to excess oxygen (see figure).