ecological succession

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Learn about ecological succession with the help of a sunken ship, S.S. President Coolidge to demonstrate the process in a tropical coral reef

How does a forest recover after a wildfire?

ecological succession

Q: What is ecological succession?

Ecological succession is the process that describes how the structure of a biological community (that is, an interacting group of various species in a desert , forest , grassland , marine environment , and so on) changes over time. Species that arrive first in a newly created environment (such as an island rising out of the sea) are called pioneer species, and they, through their interactions with one another, build a rather simple initial biological community. The structure of this community becomes more complex as new species arrive on the scene. At every stage there are certain species that have evolved life histories to exploit the particular conditions of the community. This situation imposes a partially predictable sequence of change in the physical environment and species composition of communities.

Q: What is primary succession?

Primary succession is ecological succession that begins in essentially lifeless areas, such as regions in which there is no soil or where the soil is incapable of sustaining life (because of recent lava flows, newly formed sand dunes , or rocks left from a retreating glacier ). The first species to arrive are fast-growing “weedy species,” such as lichens or small annual plants , which create the first layers of soil as they decompose. These plants also provide habitats for small animals and other forms of life. These plants are replaced by grasses and shrubs , which shade out the first colonizers and alter the soil further, before large trees and more shade-tolerant species replace the community of sun-loving grasses and shrubs. Each community may support different collections of animal species.

Q: What is secondary succession?

Secondary succession occurs in areas where a biological community has already existed but some or all of that community has been removed by small-scale disturbances that did not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment. Although fire , flooding , and other disturbances may drive out many plants and animals and set back the biological community to an earlier stage, the community does not “start from scratch” as it would during primary succession because the soil, which contains many nutrients provided by the former biological community, remains.

Q: What is a climax community?

In some environments, succession reaches a climax , which produces a stable community dominated by a small number of prominent species. This state of equilibrium , called the climax community, is thought to result when the web of interactions between the members of the biological community becomes so intricate that no other species can be admitted. Because changes in climate , ecological processes, and evolutionary processes cause changes in the environment over very long periods of time, the climax stage is not completely permanent.

biology

Also known as: community succession, ecosystem development, succession

Written by John N. Thompson

Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Article History

Key People:: Frederic Edward Clements; Henry Chandler Cowles

Related Topics:: pioneer species; secondary succession; primary succession; community; climax

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What is ecological succession?

What is primary succession?

What is secondary succession?

What is a climax community?

ecological succession, the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. Two different types of succession—primary and secondary—have been distinguished. Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is incapable of sustaining life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly formed sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier. Secondary succession occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment.

Primary and secondary succession both create a continually changing mix of species within communities as disturbances of different intensities, sizes, and frequencies alter the landscape. The sequential progression of species during succession, however, is not random. At every stage certain species have evolved life histories to exploit the particular conditions of the community. This situation imposes a partially predictable sequence of change in the species composition of communities during succession. Initially only a small number of species from surrounding habitats are capable of thriving in a disturbed habitat. As new plant species take hold, they modify the habitat by altering such things as the amount of shade on the ground or the mineral composition of the soil. These changes allow other species that are better suited to this modified habitat to succeed the old species. These newer species are superseded, in turn, by still newer species. A similar succession of animal species occurs, and interactions between plants, animals, and environment influence the pattern and rate of successional change.

In some environments, succession reaches a climax, which produces a stable community dominated by a small number of prominent species. This state of equilibrium, called the climax community, is thought to result when the web of biotic interactions becomes so intricate that no other species can be admitted. In other environments, continual small-scale disturbances produce communities that are a diverse mix of species, and any species may become dominant.

Path through summer forest in the Ukraine. (trees, lush, green, walk, walkway, road, Ukrainia, Ukrainian, woods)

ecosystem

Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Article History

Key People:: Charles Elton; Pierre Dansereau

Related Topics:: population; ecological disturbance; ecological resilience; trophic cascade; decomposer

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News •

‘Ticking timebomb’: sea acidity has reached critical levels, threatening entire ecosystems – study • June 9, 2025, 6:27 AM ET (The Guardian)

ecosystem, the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all their interrelationships in a particular unit of space.

A brief treatment of ecosystems follows. For full treatment, see biosphere.

An ecosystem can be categorized into its abiotic constituents, including minerals, climate, soil, water, sunlight, and all other nonliving elements, and its biotic constituents, consisting of all its living members. Linking these constituents together are two major forces: the flow of energy through the ecosystem and the cycling of nutrients within the ecosystem. Ecosystems vary in size: some are small enough to be contained within single water droplets while others are large enough to encompass entire landscapes and regions (see biome).

(Read E.O. Wilson’s Britannica essay on mass extinction.)

Energy flow

How an ecosystem works: Producers, herbivores, and carnivoresUnderstanding energy flow in ecosystems.
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The fundamental source of energy in almost all ecosystems is radiant energy from the Sun. The energy of sunlight is used by the ecosystem’s autotrophic, or self-sustaining, organisms (that is, those that can make their own food). Consisting largely of green vegetation, these organisms are capable of photosynthesis—i.e., they can use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into simple, energy-rich carbohydrates. The autotrophs use the energy stored within the simple carbohydrates to produce the more complex organic compounds, such as proteins, lipids, and starches, that maintain the organisms’ life processes. The autotrophic segment of the ecosystem is commonly referred to as the producer level.

Chutes d'Ekom - a waterfall on the Nkam river in the rainforest near Melong, in the western highlands of Cameroon in Africa.

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Ecosystems

How an ecosystem worksExplore the different types of organisms that form a forest ecosystem in this video.
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Organic matter generated by autotrophs directly or indirectly sustains heterotrophic organisms. Heterotrophs are the consumers of the ecosystem; they cannot make their own food. They use, rearrange, and ultimately decompose the complex organic materials built up by the autotrophs. All animals and fungi are heterotrophs, as are most bacteria and many other microorganisms.