One of the earliest studies of hippocampal dysfunction was that of “patient H.M.” (Henry Molaison), who in 1953 underwent surgical removal of portions of the medial temporal lobes, including removal of the hippocampus and surrounding regions, in an attempt to cure him of epileptic seizures. Following the surgery, his cognitive functions were mostly intact; however, he lost the ability to create new memories for facts and events, a condition known as anterograde amnesia. Such amnesia is typical in disorders that involve hippocampal dysfunction. For example, in Alzheimer disease, the hippocampus undergoes massive cell loss, which is associated with memory deficits that manifest in early stages of the disease. Stress and depression are associated with a loss of ability to generate new cells in the dentate gyrus, as well as a loss of dendritic spines and reduced dendritic branching throughout the hippocampus. Hippocampal dysfunction is also implicated in schizophrenia and associated disorders, suggesting that that region of the brain is particularly vulnerable to neuropsychiatric disease. Individuals who survive a hypoxic episode (temporary deprivation of oxygen in the brain) often sustain hippocampal damage and anterograde amnesia. Finally, the hippocampus often is the focus of epileptic seizures, which can lead to hippocampal sclerosis (a pathological loss of hippocampal cells).