Hepatic encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy refers to changes in the brain that occur in patients with advanced acute or chronic liver disease. If liver cells are damaged, certain substances that are normally cleansed from the blood by the healthy liver are not removed. These products of cell metabolism are primarily nitrogenous substances derived from protein, especially ammonia, or possibly certain short-chain fatty acids. They pass to the brain where they damage functioning nervous tissue or subvert the actions of neurotransmitters, chemical messengers that carry impulses from one brain cell to another. In acute cases, the brain becomes swollen to the point where normal breathing may cease. Chronic exposure can lead to destruction of nerve cells with replacement by scar tissue (gliosis). A patient with chronic hepatic encephalopathy may develop progressive loss of memory, disorientation, and muscular tremors, leading to a form of chronic dementia. The ingestion of protein invariably aggravates these symptoms. Patients with gastrointestinal bleeding, infection, kidney failure, and constipation and those who are taking certain medications are all at risk of worsened episodes of hepatic encephalopathy.

The treatment of hepatic encephalopathy involves, first, the removal of all drugs that require detoxification in the liver and, second, the reduction of protein intake. Ammonia is a potentially harmful by-product of digestion, and its concentration in the blood can be lowered either through the reduction of intestinal bacteria by administration of enteric antibiotics, which reduce the production of ammonia in the colon or by administration of lactulose, a nonabsorbable carbohydrate whose by-products make the contents of the colon more acidic, creating an environment that reduces the diffusion of ammonia from the intestinal lumen to the portal blood vessels.

Portal hypertension

Portal hypertension is the increased pressure in the portal vein and its tributaries. It is the result of impediments to venous flow into the liver, and is brought about by the scarring characteristic of the cirrhotic process. The increased pressure causes feeders of the portal vein to distend markedly, producing varices, or dilations of the veins. When varices are located in superficial tissues, they may rupture and bleed profusely. Varices most commonly occur in the lower esophagus, the stomach, and the perianal region. Esophageal varices are likely to bleed most heavily, and, because of the reduced blood flow in the liver that results and the large amount of protein contained in the blood that is shed into the intestines, profuse bleeding from esophageal varices is frequently associated with the onset of hepatic encephalopathy or coma. Because of their location at the lower end of the esophagus or the upper portion of the stomach, bleeding from varices is often difficult to control. Bleeding may stop spontaneously, but it is likely to recur. Considerable success in stemming such hemorrhage and preventing its recurrence has been achieved by using rubber bands to block the blood supply to each varix or by the injection of sclerosing (hardening) agents into varices during endoscopic visualization. If variceal bleeding persists and if the patient can withstand a long and complex operative procedure, surgical formation of a shunt, or artificial passageway, from the portal vein or one of its feeders to a systemic abdominal vein, such as the vena cava or the left renal vein, or from the hepatic vein to the portal vein may be performed.

Ascites

The accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, or ascites, is related to portal hypertension, significant reduction in serum albumin, and renal retention of sodium. When albumin levels in the blood are lower than normal, there is a marked reduction in the force that holds plasma water within the blood vessels and normally resists the effects of the intravascular pressure. The resulting increase in intravascular pressure, coupled with the increased internal pressure caused by the portal venous obstruction in the liver, leads to massive losses of plasma water into the abdominal cavity. The associated reduction of blood flow to the kidneys causes increased elaboration of the hormone aldosterone, which, in turn, causes the retention of sodium and water and a reduction in urinary output. In addition, because the movement of intestinal lymph into the liver is blocked by the cirrhotic process in the liver, the backflow of this fluid into the abdominal cavity is greatly increased. The volume of abdominal ascites in adults with cirrhosis may reach levels as great as 10 to 12 litres (11 to 13 quarts). Ascitic fluid may accumulate in the scrotum and in the chest cavity, where its presence, combined with the upward pressure on the diaphragm from the abdominal fluid, may severely affect breathing. Appetite also is often reduced by the abdominal distention.

The treatment of cirrhotic ascites begins with the removal of enough fluid directly from the abdomen by needle puncture to ease discomfort and breathing. Patients are placed on diets low in salt (sodium chloride), and they are given diuretic drugs to increase the output of water by the kidneys. If these measures do not control massive ascites, ascites can be drained internally into the general venous blood system by running a plastic tube from the abdominal cavity, under the skin of the chest, into the right internal jugular vein of the neck (peritoneovenous shunt of LeVeen) or from the hepatic vein to the portal vein.

Hepatorenal syndrome

Hepatorenal syndrome, a progressive reduction in kidney function that often occurs in persons with advanced acute or chronic liver disease, probably results from an inadequate flow of blood through the cortical (outer) portions of the kidneys, where most removal of waste products occurs. In some instances, hepatorenal syndrome is caused by marked reductions in blood volume that result from a low concentration of water in the blood. Hemorrhages also can reduce kidney function by leading to damage of renal tubules. Finally, with advanced hepatocytic dysfunction, a spasm of blood vessels in the renal cortex can occur, which results in progressive failure in kidney function and often leads to death. The kidneys themselves are frequently undamaged structurally. Treatment of patients with volume depletion and tubular damage often may lead to significant improvement in kidney function. Dialysis may improve symptoms.

Tumours

Liver cancer, usually in hepatocytes and less frequently in cells of bile duct origin, is rare in the Western world and is almost always associated with active cirrhosis, particularly the form found in patients with chronic hepatitis. The survival rate from liver cancer is low. In certain underdeveloped countries, especially in Africa, the incidence of this malignancy is high and is a major cause of death in the population. Most of these cases appear to stem from the prevalence of chronic viral hepatitis or the chronic presence of viruses in the blood (viremia) caused by hepatitis B. Long exposure to certain environmental poisons, such as vinyl chloride or carbon tetrachloride, has also been shown to lead to hepatic cancer.

Cancers arising elsewhere in the body, particularly in abdominal organs, lungs, and lymphoid tissue, commonly lead to metastatic cancer in the liver and are by far the most frequent type of hepatic malignancy. Usually, when such metastases are found, the primary tumour has advanced beyond the stage where it can be removed surgically.

Various benign types of tumours and cysts arise from certain components of the liver, such as the hepatocytes (adenomas) or blood vessels (hemangiomas). While the cause of these lesions is not always clear, hepatic adenomas are associated with the prolonged use of female sex hormones (estrogens). Symptoms of benign tumours depend mainly on their size and their position in relation to the surface of the liver. If they enlarge significantly, patients may experience pain or sensations of heaviness in the upper abdomen. When benign tumours are located close to the surface of the liver, they may rupture through the capsule and bleed freely into the abdominal cavity. Surgery is then required.

Benign cysts (tissue swellings filled with fluid) in the liver may occur as congenital defects or as the result of infections from infestation of the dog tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosus). Abscesses on the liver result from the spread of infection from the biliary tract or from other parts of the body, especially the appendix and the pelvic organs. Specific liver abscesses also result from infections with the intestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Abscesses usually respond well to treatment with specific antibiotics, although surgical drainage is required in some cases.