The shoulder

The shoulder is a complex ball-and-socket joint comprising the head of the humerus, the clavicle (collarbone), and the scapula. The shoulder’s main motions are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal rotation, and external rotation.

Shoulder flexion is movement of the shoulder in a forward motion. An example of shoulder flexion can be seen when reaching forward to grasp an object. That action is accomplished primarily by the combined actions of the deltoid muscle in the uppermost extent of the arm, the pectoralis major muscle in the chest, the coracobrachialis muscle on the inside of the upper arm, and the biceps brachii muscles on the front of the upper arm.

Extension of the shoulder is opposite to flexion. Pure shoulder extension is the movement of the arm directly behind the body, as in receiving a baton in a relay race. That movement is accomplished by the actions of the deltoid muscle, the latissimus dorsi muscle in the back, the teres major muscle in the armpit area, and the triceps muscle in the back of the upper arm. The triceps, as the name suggests, consists of three heads that originate from different surfaces but share the same insertion at the olecranon process of the ulna (a bone in the forearm); the three heads together act to extend the elbow.

Shoulder adduction and abduction serve to lower the arm toward and lift the arm away from the body, respectively. They can be visualized by picturing someone doing jumping jacks. Adduction is accomplished primarily by the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, teres major, triceps, and coracobrachialis. The deltoid and the supraspinatus, a muscle that runs along the scapula in the back, are the two main abductors of the shoulder.

An example of external rotation of the shoulder is seen in a tennis backhand stroke. External rotation is attributed primarily to the deltoid, the teres minor in the armpit area, and the infraspinatus muscle, which covers the scapula. Internal rotation of the shoulder is the opposite of external rotation. An example is the shoulder movement that occurs when reaching into a back pocket. That movement is achieved through the coordinated action of the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, deltoid, teres major, and subscapularis muscles. (The subscapularis is a deep muscle situated on the anterior, or front-facing, surface of the scapula.)

The teres minor, subscapularis, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus muscles together form the rotator cuff, which stabilizes the humeral head (the ball portion of the ball-and-socket shoulder joint). The muscles of the rotator cuff are common sites of injury in adults, particularly among people who perform overhead motions repeatedly (e.g., throwing a baseball or painting a ceiling). Several of the rotator cuff muscles have tendons that run under the acromion, a bony prominence at the distal end of the scapula. (The term distal describes a relative position away from the centre of the body; it often is contrasted with the term proximal, which describes a relative position near to the centre of the body.) The position of the tendons and of the subacromial bursae (fluid-filled sacs located beneath the acromion) leaves them vulnerable to compression and pinching, which can result in an injury known as shoulder impingement syndrome.

The arm

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In addition to aiding the movement of the shoulder, the muscles of the upper arm produce various movements of the forearm. For example, the primary muscles involved in forearm flexion, in which the angle formed at the elbow becomes smaller (i.e., the hand moves closer to the shoulder), are the biceps brachii, the brachialis (situated beneath the biceps brachii in the upper arm), and the brachioradialis (the origin of which is on the humerus). Minor contributions to forearm flexion are provided by the coracobrachialis and by flexor muscles situated in the anterior compartment of the forearm (the palm side of the forearm; also known as the flexor compartment), including the pronator teres, the flexor carpi radialis, the flexor digitorum superficialis, the palmaris longus, and the flexor carpi ulnaris.

Extension of the forearm increases the angle at the elbow, moving the hand away from the shoulder. That action is accomplished primarily by the triceps brachii. Other muscles that make minor contributions to forearm extension include the extensor muscles of the posterior compartment of the forearm (the side of the forearm that is contiguous with the back of the hand; also known as the extensor compartment), including the extensor carpi radialis longus, the extensor carpi radialis brevis, the extensor digitorum, the extensor carpi ulnaris, and the anconeus.

The wrist

Wrist flexion refers to movement of the wrist that draws the palm of the hand downward. That action is carried out by the flexor carpi radialis, the flexor carpi ulnaris, the flexor digitorum superficialis, the flexor digitorum profundus, and the flexor pollicis longus.

Wrist extension, by contrast, shortens the angle at the back of the wrist. The muscles responsible for that action are the extensor carpi radialis longus and the extensor carpi radialis brevis, which also abduct the hand at the wrist (move the hand in the direction of the thumb, or first digit); the extensor digitorum, which also extends the index to little finger (the second to fifth digits); the extensor digiti minimi, which also extends the little finger and adducts the hand (moves the hand in the direction of the little finger); and the extensor carpi ulnaris, which also adducts the hand. Other small muscles that cross the wrist joint may add to wrist extension, but they do so to only a small degree.

Wrist supination is the rotation of the wrist that brings the palm facing up. The supinator muscle in the posterior compartment acts to supinate the forearm. The biceps brachii also adds to supination. Pronation is the opposing action, in which the wrist is rotated so that the palm is facing down. The pronator quadratus, a deep muscle in the anterior compartment, along with the pronator teres, pronates the forearm.

The hand

The hand is a complex structure that is involved in fine motor coordination and complex task performance. Its muscles generally are small and extensively innervated. Even simple actions, such as typing on a keyboard, require a multitude of precise movements to be carried out by the hand muscles. Because of that complexity, the following paragraphs cover only the primary action of each hand muscle.

Several muscles that originate at the posterior surface of the ulna or the radius (the other bone in the forearm) have their actions in the hand. Those include the abductor pollicis longus, which abducts and extends the thumb; the extensor pollicis brevis, which extends the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint of the thumb; the extensor pollicis, which extends the distal phalanx (finger bone) of the thumb; and the extensor indicis, which extends the index finger at the MCP joint. (MCP joints are located between the metacarpal bones, which are situated in the hand, and the phalanges, which are the small bones of the fingers.)

Although several of the muscles that move the hand have their origins in the forearm, there are many small muscles of the hand that have both their origin and their insertion within the hand. Those are referred to as the intrinsic muscles of the hand. They include the palmaris brevis, which assists with grip; the umbricals, which flex the MCP joints and extend the interphalangeal joints (IPs; the joints between the phalanges) of the fingers; the palmar interossei, which adduct the fingers toward the middle finger (the third digit); and the dorsal interossei, which abduct the fingers away from the middle finger. All the interossei flex the MCP joints and extend the IP joints.

The thenar eminence is located on the palm side of the base of the thumb and is composed of three muscles, the abductor pollicis brevis, the flexor pollicis brevis, and the opponens pollicis, all of which are innervated by the median nerve. The abductor pollicis brevis abducts the thumb; the flexor pollicis brevis flexes the MCP joint of the thumb; and the opponens pollicis acts to oppose the thumb to the other fingers. The adductor pollicis, which is not part of the thenar eminence, acts to adduct the thumb.

The hypothenar enimence is located on the palm side of the hand below the little finger. It contains three muscles that are innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve. The abductor digiti minimi abducts the little finger. The flexor digiti minimi flexes the little finger. The opponens digiti minimi opposes the little finger with the thumb.