hyperthyroidism
- Also called:
- thyrotoxicosis
hyperthyroidism, excess production of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland. Most patients with hyperthyroidism have an enlarged thyroid gland (goitre), but the characteristics of the enlargement vary. Examples of thyroid disorders that give rise to hyperthyroidism include diffuse goitre (Graves disease), toxic multinodular goitre (Plummer disease), and thyroid inflammation (thyroiditis). Hyperthyroidism occurs more often in adults than in children, and it is 5 to 10 times more common in women than in men.
Causes of hyperthyroidism
The most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves disease, named for the Irish physician Robert Graves, who was among the first to describe the condition. Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder in which hyperthyroidism and goitre are caused by thyroid-stimulating antibodies. These antibodies bind to and activate thyrotropin (thyroid-stimulating hormone; TSH) receptors on the thyroid gland, thereby mimicking the actions of thyrotropin. Risk factors for Graves disease include gender (women are affected more often than men), smoking, and a high intake of iodine. In addition, some individuals possess genetic susceptibility to the disease. The immediate events that lead to the production of thyroid-stimulating antibodies that cause hyperthyroidism are not known, although emotional stress has been postulated to be an important factor. An interesting feature of Graves disease is spontaneous remission, with a disappearance of the thyroid-stimulating antibodies. In these patients, antithyroid drug treatment can be withdrawn without recurrence of hyperthyroidism.
Approximately 25 to 35 percent of patients with Graves disease have Graves ophthalmopathy. The defining characteristic of this condition is the protrusion of the eyes (exophthalmos). The eyelids may be retracted upward, making it seem as though the person is constantly staring. The tissues surrounding the eyes may swell, and the eye muscles may not function properly, causing double vision. In rare cases, vision is decreased because of compression or stretching of the optic nerve. These changes are caused by swelling and inflammation of the eye muscles and the adipose (fat) tissue behind the eyes. Approximately 1 to 2 percent of patients with Graves disease have localized myxedema, which is characterized by circumscribed thickening of the skin and subcutaneous tissue on the lower legs (pretibial myxedema), arms, or trunk. Nearly all patients with localized myxedema have severe ophthalmopathy and have had hyperthyroidism in the past. Ophthalmopathy and localized myxedema are believed to be caused by both antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immunologic mechanisms. Whether the antibodies are thyroid-stimulating antibodies or different antibodies is not known.
The second most common cause of hyperthyroidism is toxic multinodular goitre, or Plummer disease. This condition begins early in life and is due to iodine deficiency or to other factors that decrease thyroid hormone secretion and result in a persistent increase in thyrotropin secretion and therefore persistent thyroid gland stimulation. This stimulation initially causes generalized thyroid enlargement, but, as time passes, localized regions of the gland grow and function independently of thyrotropin. A less common cause of hyperthyroidism is a benign tumour (toxic adenoma) of the thyroid gland. In many cases these tumours contain a mutation of the thyrotropin receptor gene that results in the synthesis of thyrotropin receptors that are active and therefore lead to excess thyroid hormone production in the absence of thyrotropin.
Several types of thyroiditis can result in the release of stored thyroid hormone in amounts sufficient to cause hyperthyroidism. One type, called silent lymphocytic thyroiditis, is painless and is particularly common in women in the first year after a pregnancy (postpartum thyroiditis). Another type, called subacute granulomatous thyroiditis, is characterized by thyroid pain and tenderness. Hyperthyroidism in patients with thyroiditis is usually mild and self-limiting, lasting only until the stores of hormone in the thyroid gland are exhausted.
The administration of high doses of thyroid hormone is a common cause of hyperthyroidism. The hormone may have been given by a physician to treat hypothyroidism or to decrease the size of a goitre. In addition, some patients purchase thyroid hormone from health and nutrition stores in the form of a crude thyroid extract or an analogue of thyroid hormone purported to stimulate metabolism and cause weight loss. These preparations may contain variable amounts of thyroid hormone and can have unpredictable effects on the body.
In rare cases, hyperthyroidism may be caused by a thyrotropin-secreting tumour of the pituitary gland or a struma ovarii, in which hyperfunctioning thyroid tissue is present in a tumour of the ovary.
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
The onset of hyperthyroidism is usually gradual but can be sudden. The increase in thyroid hormone secretion results in an increase in the function of many organ systems. The cardiovascular and neuromuscular systems are likely to be affected. The cardiovascular symptoms and signs of hyperthyroidism include an increase in heart rate (tachycardia), atrial fibrillation (rapid irregular heart rhythm), palpitations (pounding in the chest due to forceful contraction of the heart), shortness of breath, and exercise intolerance. Neuromuscular symptoms and signs of hyperthyroidism include nervousness, hyperactivity and restlessness, anxiety and irritability, insomnia, tremor, and muscle weakness. Other common symptoms and signs of hyperthyroidism are weight loss despite a good or even increased appetite, increased perspiration and intolerance of heat, increased frequency of bowel movements, and irregular menstrual cycles and decreased menstrual blood flow in women. Hyperthyroidism also causes an increase in bone resorption and therefore contributes to osteoporosis. The most severe form of hyperthyroidism is thyroid storm. This acute condition is characterized by very rapid heart rate, fever, hypertension (high blood pressure), and certain gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms and may result in heart failure, hypotension (low blood pressure), shock, and death.
Diagnosis of hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is diagnosed based on the symptoms and signs described above and on measurements of high serum total and free thyroid hormone concentrations and low, sometimes undetectable, serum thyrotropin concentrations. In serum, there are actually two thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine, with the former being produced in much greater quantities than the latter. Thyroid hormones exist in two forms, one of which is bound to several proteins, and the other of which, a very small amount, is free. Thus, serum thyroxine can be measured as serum total thyroxine or free thyroxine; the latter is preferable because it is the form of thyroxine that is readily available to the cells of the body and, therefore, is metabolically active. Measurements of serum total thyroxine are high in patients with thyroid disease and in patients producing more of the proteins that bind to thyroxine.
The cause of hyperthyroidism may be distinguished based on relative differences in the concentrations of thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and thyrotropin. Patients with a thyrotropin-secreting pituitary tumour have normal or high serum thyrotropin concentrations. Rarely, patients have normal serum thyroxine concentrations but high serum triiodothyronine concentrations. These patients are said to have triiodothyronine thyrotoxicosis. Other patients have low serum thyrotropin concentrations but normal serum thyroxine and triiodothyronine concentrations, with few or no symptoms and signs of hyperthyroidism. These patients are said to have subclinical hyperthyroidism. Thyroid uptake of radioiodine may be measured to distinguish thyroiditis or excess thyroid hormone administration, in which the thyroid uptake is low, from other causes of hyperthyroidism, in which the thyroid uptake is high.
Treatment of hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is usually a chronic, even lifelong, disorder. It can be treated with an antithyroid drug, radioactive iodine, or surgery (thyroidectomy), in which a portion or all of the thyroid gland is surgically removed. There are three widely used antithyroid drugs—methimazole, carbimazole (which is rapidly converted to methimazole in the body), and propylthiouracil. These drugs block the production of thyroid hormone but have no permanent effect on either the thyroid gland or the underlying cause of the hyperthyroidism. Patients with hyperthyroidism caused by Graves disease are often treated with an antithyroid drug for one to two years in the hope that they will have a remission of the disease and remain well after the drug is stopped; this is successful in 30 to 50 percent of patients. Radioactive iodine is taken up by thyroid cells in the same way as is nonradioactive iodine, but the radiation destroys the cells, thereby reducing thyroid hormone production and also reducing the size of the thyroid gland. It is highly effective, but it results ultimately in hypothyroidism in most patients and, in some patients, may even lead to the later development of certain types of solid cancers (e.g., breast cancer). It is suitable for patients with Graves disease and is the preferred treatment for patients with a nodular goitre, in whom hyperthyroidism is a lifelong condition. The removal of the thyroid by thyroidectomy is rarely performed, except in the case of patients with a large goitre. When caused by thyroiditis, hyperthyroidism is transient, usually lasting only four to six weeks or at most two months. Most patients need no treatment or only symptomatic treatment with a beta-adrenergic antagonist drug (beta-blocker).
Robert D. Utiger