The mechanism by which the enormous diversity of B and T cells is generated is a random process that inevitably gives rise to some receptors that recognize the body’s own constituents as foreign. Lymphocytes bearing such self-reactive receptors, however, are eliminated or rendered impotent by several different mechanisms, so that the immune system does not normally generate significant amounts of antibodies or T cells that are reactive with the body’s components (self antigens). Nevertheless, an immune response to self, called autoimmunity, can occur, and some of the ways that self-directed immune responses cause damage have been mentioned in the section Allergies.
Understanding and identifying autoimmune disorders is difficult given that all humans have many self-reactive antibodies in the blood but most show no sign of disease. Consequently the identification of autoantibodies is not a sufficient diagnostic tool for determining the presence of an autoimmune disorder. There is a difference between an autoimmune response and disease: in the former case the autoantibodies do not cause dysfunction, but in the latter case they do.
Basic processes underlying autoimmunity
Immunologists cannot always explain why the mechanisms that normally prevent the development of autoimmunity have failed in a particular autoimmune disorder. They have, however, advanced a number of explanations for such failures.
Alteration of self antigens
Various mechanisms can alter self components so that they seem foreign to the immune system. New antigenic determinants can be attached to self proteins, or the shape of a self antigen can shift—for a variety of reasons—so that previously unresponsive helper T cells are stimulated and can cooperate with preexisting B cells to secrete autoantibodies. Alteration of the shape of a self protein has been shown to occur in experimental animals and is the most probable explanation for the production of the rheumatoid factors that are characteristic of rheumatoid arthritis. Infectious organisms also can alter self antigens, which may explain why viral infection of specialized cells—such as those in the pancreas that secrete insulin or those in the thyroid gland that make thyroid hormones—often precedes the development of autoantibodies against the cells themselves and against their hormonal products.
Release of sequestered self antigens
Intracellular antigens and antigens found on tissues that are not in contact with the circulation normally are segregated effectively from the immune system. Thus, they may be regarded as foreign if they are released into the circulation as a result of tissue destruction caused by trauma or infection. After sudden damage to the heart, for example, antibodies against heart muscle membranes regularly appear in the blood.
Cross-reaction with foreign antigens
This mechanism comes into play when an infectious agent produces antigens so similar to those on normal tissue cells that the antibodies stimulated to react against the foreign antigen also recognize the similar self antigen; hence, the two antigens are said to be cross-reactive. Autoantibodies stimulated by external antigens in this way can cause serious damage. For example, the streptococci that cause rheumatic fever make antigens that are cross-reactive with those on heart muscle membranes, and the antibodies that react with the bacteria also bind to the heart muscle membrane and cause damage to the heart. Another instance of an autoimmune disorder that arises from cross-reactivity is Chagas disease. The trypanosomes that cause the disease make antigens that are cross-reactive with antigens on the surface of the specialized nerve cells that regulate the orderly contraction of muscles in the bowel. Antibodies directed against the trypanosomes also interact with these nerve cells and disrupt normal bowel functioning.
Genetic factors
Several autoimmune diseases clearly run in families. Careful studies (for example, those comparing the incidence in identical twins with that in fraternal twins) have shown that the increased incidence of such autoimmune diseases cannot be explained by environmental factors. Rather, it stems from a genetic defect that is passed from one generation to the next. Such disorders include Graves disease, Hashimoto disease, autoimmune gastritis (including pernicious anemia), type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, and Addison disease. These diseases are more common in persons who bear particular MHC antigens on their cells. The possession of these antigens does not imply that a person will contract such diseases, only that he or she is more likely to do so. Researchers generally agree that the interaction of many genes is needed before a person develops such autoimmune diseases. For example, type I diabetes is believed to result from at least 14 genes.
Another interesting feature that appears to relate to the inheritance of autoimmune disorders is gender. Most human autoimmune diseases afflict far more women than men. Women are affected more often than men with most of the better-known disorders, including myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus erythematosis, Graves disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and Hashimoto disease. The reason for this is not fully understood, but researchers think it probably is related to hormonal effects on immune responses.
Examples of autoimmune disorders
The spectrum of autoimmune disorders is wide, ranging from those that involve a single organ to others that affect several different organs as a secondary consequence of the presence of immune complexes in the circulation. It is not possible in this article to discuss them all. The following disorders have been chosen to illustrate some of the very different complications that can arise from autoimmunity.