inborn error of metabolism

inborn error of metabolism, any of multiple rare disorders that are caused by an inherited genetic defect and that alter the body’s ability to derive energy from nutrients. The term inborn error of metabolism was introduced in 1908 by British physician Sir Archibald Garrod, who postulated that inherited disorders such as alkaptonuria and albinism result from reduced activity or complete absence of enzymes involved in certain biochemical pathways. Garrod’s identification and categorization of inborn errors of metabolism represented an important conceptual advance in 20th-century medical genetics.

The overall estimated incidence of inborn errors of metabolism is approximately 1 in every 4,000 live births. However, incidence can vary within populations, depending on factors such as ethnic background.

Underlying causes and patterns of inheritance

The metabolic diseases that result from inborn defects involve different aspects of human metabolism, including the handling of amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. In most instances the underlying cause is the inheritance of a mutated enzyme, the normal function of which is the metabolic transformation of one metabolite into another, or of a mutated transport protein, the normal function of which is to assist in the movement of a compound across a cell membrane.

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Inheritance of inborn errors of metabolism usually conforms to an autosomal recessive pattern (two copies of the mutant gene, one from each parent, must be inherited to produce the signs and symptoms of disease). In some cases, however, inheritance may be dominant (only one copy of the mutated gene is needed) or sex-linked (the mutated gene is carried on a sex [X or Y] chromosome).

Symptoms and effects on the brain

Although certain inborn errors of metabolism are apparent at or shortly after birth, others may not become obvious until early childhood. Certain symptoms vary according to the specific disorder, but, in general, affected individuals have a poor appetite or unusual food preferences (e.g., aversion to protein), may fail to thrive, may be lethargic, and may experience developmental delays. In some instances, symptoms are confused with those of other diseases or disorders, resulting in delayed diagnosis.

Inborn errors of metabolism can result in injury to virtually any tissue, but the most dramatic and characteristic consequence in untreated or severe cases is damage to the developing brain. Neurological disease often appears clinically as encephalopathy (abnormal brain function and structure). Encephalopathy reflects the accumulation of an otherwise normal metabolite that becomes toxic when present in excess concentration. An example is the extreme elevation of the amino acid phenylalanine that accompanies a congenital defect of phenylalanine hydroxylase, the mutant enzyme in classical phenylketonuria (PKU). The biochemical sequence that leads from phenylalanine accumulation to intellectual disability remains obscure, although it is likely that the underlying pathophysiology evokes alterations of brain energy metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, and myelin formation (myelin is the insulating material found around the axons of neurons).

Diagnosis and treatment of metabolic disorders

Inherited metabolic diseases are diagnosed based primarily on biochemical tests, which may employ any of several different chromatographic, electrophoretic, and enzymatic techniques for the isolation and quantitation of relevant metabolites in blood and urine. The ability to detect metabolic abnormalities in blood facilitated the development of newborn screening for metabolic disorders, in which mass spectrometry is used to screen for multiple disorders in dried spots of blood. Newborn screening attempts to catch metabolic diseases before they cause severe developmental delays or impairments.

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Genetic testing may also be used to diagnose inborn errors of metabolism or to confirm diagnosis based on screening or other biochemical findings. Genetic testing can unambiguously characterize fundamental alterations of the genetic code that give rise to metabolic aberrations. It is sometimes used in the assessment of fetuses at high risk for metabolic disease.

Treatment for inborn errors of metabolism depends on the specific biochemical pathway that has been affected. In general, however, diet therapy, or the purposeful interdiction of a potentially injurious nutrient, often attenuates or even prevents brain injury and permits normal neurological development. For many disorders, a bone marrow, liver, or kidney transplant has palliated the underlying lesion and afforded near-normal metabolism. A therapeutic prospect is gene therapy, or the administration of an agent that safely and efficiently carries normal copies of the deficient gene to cells of the affected patient, thereby reconstituting normal or near-normal enzymatic competence.