Embryology and evolution

The skin of vertebrates begins to form early in embryonic development, from a superficial germ layer, the ectoderm. The middle germ layer, or mesoderm, proliferates cells rapidly from segmental building blocks, called somites; these cells then migrate in order to lie directly under the outer ectodermal covering. These two embryonic layers—ectoderm and mesoderm—ultimately give rise to the adult skin; the ectoderm produces the epidermis and its derivatives, and the mesoderm produces the dermis.

The human fetus, at least, produces a specialized temporary embryonic skin, known as the periderm. For much of the second trimester of gestation, the periderm consists of cells with projecting globules covered with small protrusions, or microvilli. These cells are subsequently sloughed off as the stratum corneum is formed underneath them.

Differentiation of embryonic tissues proceeds rapidly during the early course of development, and much of what will become adult skin structures—including the glands and appendages—is laid down before the animal is born, often in a latent stage, to resume development later.

As a surface constantly exposed to the environment, the epidermis has undergone more adaptive changes during evolution than any other portion of the skin. Ancestral vertebrates, aquatic and fishlike, were buffeted by water, which kept the living surfaces moist.

The movement to land was gradual and fraught with risk. Amphibians were among the first vertebrates to explore the terrestrial environment. Many evolved a semiaquatic lifestyle, exploiting the land for most of their activities but returning to the water for reproduction. Some remained entirely aquatic, and others adapted to a strictly terrestrial life. Their epidermises reflected such habits: aquatic amphibians developed a thin, slimy, dull skin densely covered with mucous glands; terrestrial forms acquired a thicker, horny, heavily pigmented skin dotted with poison glands.

The reptiles became even more independent of the water. Their skins grew tough, horny, and dry and sometimes received bony contributions from the dermis. Birds evolved a loose, dry skin covered with feathers for insulation and for airfoils and water foils. Finally, mammals adopted a dry, elastic skin, more or less covered with hair. The range of mammalian skin, from smooth (glabrous), as in the cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), to densely hairy, as in Arctic bears, is associated with the dispersion of mammals into a wide range of habitats.

Biodynamics

The vertebrate skin—despite its variety—serves the two common functions of protection from, and communication with, the environment. In all land vertebrates the uppermost layers of the skin are dead, but the dermis is richly endowed with living tissue that can respond rapidly to change. A variety of nerve endings constantly report current conditions, and the body makes continuous adjustments in response.

It has been said that the skin is the largest and most versatile organ of the animal body. It shields against injury, against foreign matter and disease organisms, and against potentially harmful rays of the Sun. It also regulates internal body temperature through its insulating ability and its influence on the blood flow. Further, it embodies the sense of touch and adorns the body. Its contours, colour, patterns, and composition aid in species recognition and sexual attraction.

The effectiveness of the skin as a barrier, however, is not complete. Noxious substances that can gain entry evoke an immune response, and the dermis reddens with the rush of blood to the site. Heat also causes expansion of the dermal blood vessels—and in humans and in horses stimulates the sweat glands to heightened activity—thus increasing the loss of body heat. Conversely, cold causes contraction of the vessels and initiates shivering, thereby conserving heat in the first instance and generating it in the second.

The skin is host to a number of microorganisms, especially bacteria and fungi. It is, however, an unstable environment for this population, which lives on the dead epidermal surface that is periodically sloughed off. A normal microcosm exists on most epidermal surfaces. Over the course of evolution an alliance has been established between the skin biota and the epidermal “host,” which tends to stabilize the surface; anything that disrupts the skin biota encourages an imbalance and a potential flare-up of certain microorganisms over others.