Fundamental concepts

Homology and analogy

Homologous structures develop from similar embryonic substances and thus have similar basic structural and developmental patterns, reflecting common genetic endowments and evolutionary relationships. In marked contrast, analogous structures are superficially similar and serve similar functions but have quite different structural and developmental patterns. The arm of a human, the wing of a bird, and the pectoral fins of a whale are homologous structures in that all have similar patterns of bones, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels and similar embryonic origins; each, however, has a different function. The wings of birds and those of butterflies, in contrast, are analogous structures—i.e., both allow flight but have no developmental processes in common.

The terms homology and analogy are also applied to the molecular structures of cellular constituents. Because the hemoglobin molecules from different vertebrate species contain remarkably similar sequences of amino acids, they may be termed homologous molecules. In contrast, hemoglobin and hemocyanin, the latter of which is present in crab blood, are described as analogous molecules because they have a similar function (oxygen transport) but differ considerably in molecular structure. Corresponding similarities occur in the structures of other proteins from different species—e.g., cytochrome c and other enzymes (biological catalysts) such as the lactic dehydrogenases in birds and mammals.

Body plan and symmetry

The bodies of most animals and plants are organized according to one of three types of symmetry: spherical, radial, or bilateral. A spherically symmetrical body is similar throughout and can be cut in any plane through the centre to yield two equal halves. A few of the simplest plants and animals are spherically symmetrical—e.g., protozoans such as Radiolaria and Heliozoa. Radially symmetrical bodies, such as those of starfishes and mushrooms, have a distinguishable top and bottom and usually have a cylindrical shape, with the body parts radiating from the central axis. A starfish can be cut into two equal halves by any plane that includes the line, or axis, running through its centre from top to bottom. The anterior, or oral, end usually contains the mouth; a posterior, or aboral, end may have an anus. In the bilaterally symmetrical body of higher animals including humans, only a cut from head to foot exactly in the centre divides the body into equivalent halves. An anterior, or head, end and a posterior, or tail, end can be distinguished; and the dorsal, or back, side can be distinguished from the ventral, or belly, side. But because some internal organs of humans are not symmetrical (e.g., the heart), even the right and left halves of the human body are not exactly equivalent. A few organisms—amoebas, slime molds, and certain sponges—with an irregular form, or one that changes as the organism moves, have no plane of symmetry.

Morphological basis of classification

The features that distinguish closely related species of plants and animals are usually superficial differences such as colour, size, and proportion. In contrast, the major divisions, or phyla, of the plant and animal kingdoms are distinguished by characteristics that, though usually not unique to a single division or phylum, occur in unique combinations in each.

One morphological feature useful in classifying animals and in determining their evolutionary relationships is the presence or absence of cellular differentiation—i.e., animals may be either single-celled or composed of many kinds of cells specialized to perform particular functions. Some multicellular animals have only two embryonic cell, or germ, layers: an ectoderm (outer layer) and an endoderm (inner layer), which lines the digestive tract. Other animals have these, in addition to a mesoderm, which lies between the ectoderm and endoderm. Animals may have one of two types of body cavity. The bodies of the Coelenterata (invertebrates such as the jellyfish) and other primitive many-celled animals consist of a double-walled sac surrounding a single cavity with a mouth. Higher animals have two cavities, and their bodies are constructed on a so-called tube-within-a-tube plan. An inner tube, or digestive tract, is lined with endoderm and opens at each end to form the mouth and the anus. An outer tube, or body wall, is covered with ectoderm. Between the two tubes a second cavity, or coelom, lies within the mesoderm and is lined by it. Another major distinguishing morphological feature of animal phyla is the presence or absence of segmentation. The members of several phyla have bodies characterized by the presence of a row of segments, or body units, of the same fundamental structure. Segmented animals include the vertebrates, the annelids (invertebrates such as the earthworm), and the arthropods (invertebrates such as insects); in some segmented animals such as humans and most vertebrates, however, the segmental character of the body is obscured. An evolutionary tendency in many animal phyla has been the progressive differentiation of the anterior end to form a head with conspicuous sense organs and an accumulation of nervous tissues, a brain; the tendency is called cephalization. Some morphological structures are found only in one phylum; for example, only the Coelenterata have stinging cells (nematocysts), the Echinodermata (invertebrates such as starfishes) have a peculiar water vascular system, and only the Chordates (e.g., reptiles, birds) have a dorsally located, hollow nerve cord.

Like animals, plants may be either single-celled or composed of many kinds of specialized cells. The bodies of most of the lower plants, such as algae and fungi, comprise the least-differentiated and least-specialized type of plant cells, parenchyma cells. The embryonic tissues of higher plants, unlike those of animals, remain extremely active throughout the life of the plant. In addition, the different types of cells characteristic of the body of higher plants arise from meristems, specific regions in the plant body where cells divide and enlarge. In all but the simplest forms, the plant body is composed of various types of cells associated in more or less definite ways to form systems of units called tissue systems—e.g., the vascular system consisting of conductive tissues. The arrangement of the components of the vascular system is a distinguishing morphological feature of various plant groups. The character and relative extent of the two phases in the life history of a plant—the sexual phase, or gametophyte, and the sporophyte—vary considerably among the plant groups and are useful in distinguishing them.