Nominalism
Nominalism is the view that mathematical objects such as numbers and sets and circles do not really exist. Nominalists do admit that there are such things as piles of three eggs and ideas of the number 3 in people’s heads, but they do not think that any of these things is the number 3. Of course, when nominalists deny that the number 3 is a physical or mental object, they are in agreement with Platonists. They admit that if there were any such thing as the number 3, then it would be an abstract object; but, unlike mathematical Platonists, they do not believe in abstract objects, and so they do not believe in numbers. There are three different versions of mathematical nominalism: paraphrase nominalism, fictionalism, and what can be called neo-Meinongianism.
The paraphrase nominalist view can be elucidated by returning to the sentence “4 is even.” Paraphrase nominalists agree with Platonists that if this sentence is interpreted at face value—i.e., as saying that the object 4 has the property of being even—then it makes a straightforward claim about an abstract object. However, paraphrase nominalists do not think that ordinary mathematical sentences such as “4 is even” should be interpreted at face value; they think that what these sentences really say is different from what they seem to say on the surface. More specifically, paraphrase nominalists think that these sentences do not make straightforward claims about objects. There are several different versions of paraphrase nominalism, of which the best known is “if-thenism,” or deductivism. According to this view, the sentence “4 is even” can be paraphrased by the sentence “If there were such things as numbers, then 4 would be even.” In this view, even if there are no such things as numbers, the sentence “4 is even” is still true. For, of course, even if there is no such thing as the number 4, it is still true that, if there were such a thing, it would be even. Deductivism has roots in the thought of David Hilbert, a brilliant German mathematician from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but it was developed more fully by the American philosophers Hilary Putnam and Geoffrey Hellman. Other versions of paraphrase nominalism have been developed by the American philosophers Haskell Curry and Charles Chihara.
Mathematical fictionalists agree with paraphrase nominalists that there are no such things as abstract objects and, hence, no such things as numbers. They think that paraphrase nominalists are mistaken, however, in their claims about what mathematical sentences such as “4 is even” really mean. Fictionalists think that Platonists are right that these sentences should be read at face value; they think that “4 is even” should be taken as saying just what it seems to say—namely, that the number 4 has the property of being even. Moreover, fictionalists also agree with Platonists that if there really were such a thing as the number 4, then it would be an abstract object. But, again, fictionalists do not believe that there is such a thing as the number 4, and so they maintain that sentences like “4 is even” are not literally true. Fictionalists think that sentences such as “4 is even” are analogous in a certain way to sentences like “Santa Claus lives at the North Pole.” They are not literally true descriptions of the world, but they are true in a certain well-known story. Thus, according to fictionalism, arithmetic is something like a story, and it involves a sort of fiction, or pretense, to the effect that there are such things as numbers. Given this pretense, the theory says what numbers are like, or what they would be like if they existed. Fictionalists then argue that it is not a bad thing that mathematical sentences are not literally true. Mathematics is not supposed to be literally true, say the fictionalists, and they have a long explanation of why mathematics is pragmatically useful and intellectually interesting despite the fact that it is not literally true. Fictionalism was first proposed by the American philosopher Hartry Field. It was then developed in a somewhat different way by Balaguer, the American philosopher Gideon Rosen, and the Canadian philosopher Stephen Yablo.
The last version of nominalism is neo-Meinongianism, which derives from Alexius Meinong, a late-19th century Austrian philosopher. Meinong endorsed a view that was supposed to be distinct from Platonism, but most philosophers now agree that it is in fact equivalent to Platonism. In particular, Meinong held that there are such things as abstract objects but that these things do not have full-blown existence. Philosophers have responded to Meinong’s claims by making a pair of related points. First, since Meinong thought there are such things as numbers, and since he thought that these things are nonspatiotemporal, it follows that he was a Platonist. Second, Meinong simply used the word exist in a nonstandard way; according to ordinary English, anything that is exists, and so it is contradictory to say that numbers are but do not exist.
Advocates of neo-Meinongianism agree with Platonists and fictionalists that the sentence “4 is even” should be interpreted at face value, as making (or purporting to make) a straightforward claim about a certain object—namely, the number 4. Moreover, they also agree that if there were any such thing as the number 4, then it would be an abstract object. Finally, they agree with fictionalists that there are no such things as abstract objects. In spite of this, neo-Meinongians claim that “4 is even” is literally true, for they maintain that a sentence of the form “The object O has the property P” can be literally true, even if there is no such thing as the object O. Thus, neo-Meinongianism consists in the following (seemingly awkward) trio of claims: (1) mathematical sentences should be read at face value, as purporting to make claims about mathematical objects such as numbers; (2) there are no such things as mathematical objects; and yet (3) mathematical sentences are still literally true. Neo-Meinongianism, in the form described here, was first introduced by the New Zealand philosopher Richard Sylvan, but related views were held much earlier by the German philosophers Rudolf Carnap and Carl Gustav Hempel and the British philosopher Sir Alfred Ayer. Views along these lines have been endorsed by Graham Priest of England, Jody Azzouni of the United States, and Otavio Bueno of Brazil.
In sum, then, there are essentially five alternatives to Platonism. If one does not want to claim that mathematics is about nonphysical, nonmental, nonspatiotemporal objects, then one must to claim either (1) that mathematics is about concrete mental objects in people’s heads (psychologism); or (2) that it is about concrete physical objects (physicalism); or (3) that, contrary to first appearances, mathematical sentences do not make claims about objects at all (paraphrase nominalism); or (4) that, while mathematics does purport to be about abstract objects, there are in fact no such things, and so mathematics is not literally true (fictionalism); or (5) that mathematical sentences purport to be about abstract objects, and there are no such things as abstract objects, and yet these sentences are still literally true (neo-Meinongianism).
Logicism, intuitionism, and formalism
During the first half of the 20th century, the philosophy of mathematics was dominated by three views: logicism, intuitionism, and formalism. Given this, it might seem odd that none of these views has been mentioned yet. The reason is that (with the exception of certain varieties of formalism) these views are not views of the kind discussed above. The views discussed above concern what the sentences of mathematics are really saying and what they are really about. But logicism and intuitionism are not views of this kind at all, and insofar as certain versions of formalism are views of this kind, they are versions of the views described above. How then should logicism, intuitionism, and formalism be characterized? In order to understand these views, it is important to understand the intellectual climate in which they were developed. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mathematicians and philosophers of mathematics became preoccupied with the idea of securing a firm foundation of mathematics. That is, they wanted to show that mathematics, as ordinarily practiced, was reliable or trustworthy or certain. It was in connection with this project that logicism, intuitionism, and formalism were developed.
The desire to secure a foundation for mathematics was brought on in large part by the British philosopher Bertrand Russell’s discovery in 1901 that naive set theory contained a contradiction. It had been naively thought that for every concept, there exists a set of things that fall under that concept; for instance, corresponding to the concept “egg” is the set of all the eggs in the world. Even concepts such as “mermaid” are associated with a set—namely, the empty set. Russell noticed, however, that there is no set corresponding to the concept “not a member of itself.” For suppose that there were such a set—i.e., a set of all the sets that are not members of themselves. Call this set S. Is S a member of itself? If it is, then it is not (because all the sets in S are not members of themselves); and if S is not a member of itself, then it is (because all the sets not in S are members of themselves). Either way, a contradiction follows. Thus, there is no such set as S.
Logicism is the view that mathematical truths are ultimately logical truths. This idea was introduced by Frege. He endorsed logicism in conjunction with Platonism, but logicism is consistent with various anti-Platonist views as well. Logicism was also endorsed at about the same time by Russell and his associate, British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead. Few people still endorse this view, although there is a neologicist school, the main proponents of which are the British philosophers Crispin Wright and Robert Hale.
Intuitionism is the view that certain kinds of mathematical proofs (namely, nonconstructive arguments) are unacceptable. More fundamentally, intuitionism is best seen as a theory about mathematical assertion and denial. Intuitionists embrace the nonstandard view that mathematical sentences of the form “The object O has the property P” really mean that there is a proof that the object O has the property P, and they also embrace the view that mathematical sentences of the form “not-P” mean that a contradiction can be proven from P. Because intuitionists accept both of these views, they reject the traditionally accepted claim that for any mathematical sentence P, either P or not-P is true; and because of this, they reject nonconstructive proofs. Intuitionism was introduced by L.E.J. Brouwer, and it was developed by Brouwer’s student Arend Heyting and somewhat later by the British philosopher Michael Dummett. Brouwer and Heyting endorsed intuitionism in conjunction with psychologism, but Dummett did not, and the view is consistent with various nonpsychologistic views—e.g., Platonism and nominalism.
There are a few different versions of formalism. Perhaps the simplest and most straightforward is metamathematical formalism, which holds that ordinary mathematical sentences that seem to be about things such as numbers are really about mathematical sentences and theories. In this view, “4 is even” should not be literally taken to mean that the number 4 is even but that the sentence “4 is even” follows from arithmetic axioms. Formalism can be held simultaneously with Platonism or various versions of anti-Platonism, but it is usually conjoined with nominalism. Metamathematical formalism was developed by Haskell Curry, who endorsed it in conjunction with a sort of nominalism.
Mathematical Platonism: for and against
Philosophers have come up with numerous arguments for and against Platonism, but one of the arguments for Platonism stands out above the rest, and one of the arguments against Platonism also stands out as the best. These arguments have roots in the writings of Plato, but the pro-Platonist argument was first clearly formulated by Frege, and the locus classicus of the anti-Platonist argument is a 1973 paper by the American philosopher Paul Benacerraf.