The central stars

Many central stars are known from their spectra to be very hot. A common type of spectrum has very broad emission lines of carbon or nitrogen, as well as of ionized helium, superimposed upon a bluish continuum. These spectra are indistinguishable from those from the very bright rare stars known as Wolf-Rayet stars, but the planetary nuclei are about 100 times fainter than true Wolf-Rayet objects. The stars appear to be losing some mass at the present time, though evidently not enough to contribute appreciably to the shell.

The presence of the nebula allows a fairly precise determination of the central star’s evolution. The temperature of the star can be estimated from the nebula from the amounts of emission of ionized helium and hydrogen by a method devised by the Dutch astronomer H. Zanstra. The amount of ionized-helium radiation is determined by the number of photons with energy of more than 54 electron volts, while hydrogen is ionized by photons in excess of 13.6 electron volts. The relative numbers of photons in the two groups depend strongly on temperature, since the spectrum shifts dramatically to higher energies as the temperature of the star increases. Hence, the temperature can be found from the observed strengths of the hydrogen and helium lines. The rate of evolution of the stars can be determined from the sizes of their nebulae, as the time since ejection of the shell is the radius of the nebula divided by the expansion rate. The energy output, or luminosity, of the central star can be estimated from the brightness of the nebula, because the nebula is converting the star’s invisible ultraviolet radiation (which contains the greater part of the star’s luminous energy) into visible radiation.

The resulting theoretical description of the star’s evolution is quite interesting. While there seem to be real differences in stars at a given stage, the trends are quite clear. The central stars in young planetary nebulae are about as hot as the massive O and B stars—35,000–40,000 K—but roughly 10 times fainter. They have half the diameter of the Sun but are 1,000 times as luminous. As the nebula expands, the star increases its brightness and temperature, but its radius decreases steadily. It reaches a maximum energy output when it is roughly 10,000 times as luminous as the Sun, about 5,000 years after the initial expansion. This is a very small fraction of the star’s age of several billion years; it represents a period equivalent to about half an hour in a human life. From this point on, the star becomes fainter, but for some time the temperature continues to increase while the shrinkage of the star continues. At its hottest the star is more than 200,000 K, almost five times hotter than the hottest of most of the stars. It then cools and after about 10,000 years becomes a very dense white dwarf star, scarcely larger than Earth but with a density of thousands of kilograms per cubic centimetre. From this point it cools very slowly, becoming redder and fainter indefinitely.

While there is not yet a very detailed theoretical picture of this contraction, a few results have emerged rather clearly: (1) white dwarf stars must obtain nearly all their energy from the contraction noted above, not from nuclear sources; therefore, (2) they must contain practically no hydrogen or helium, except perhaps in a very thin shell on their surfaces. These conditions would have to be met for the evolution to take place so quickly.

The absence of hydrogen in the star’s interior is quite surprising; the planetary nebulae are all found to have a normal hydrogen abundance of about 1,000 times as many hydrogen atoms as heavy elements, such as oxygen. Thus, the mechanism of expulsion of the envelope must be very efficient at ejecting the hydrogen-rich outer layers of a star while leaving heavy-element-rich material behind.

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Space Odyssey

The nature of the progenitor stars

The progenitor must have mass not much in excess of a solar mass because of the distribution of the planetaries in the Galaxy. Very massive stars are young and more closely confined than are nebulae to the galactic plane. Also, the mass of the nebula is roughly 0.3 solar mass, and the mass of a typical white dwarf (the final state of the central star) is roughly 0.7 solar mass. Next, the expansion velocity of the nebula is probably comparable to the velocity of escape from its progenitor, which implies that the progenitor was a red giant star, large and cool, completely unlike the small, hot, blue, nuclear star remaining after the ejection. Likely candidates are members of the class of long-period variable stars, which have about the right size and mass and are known to be unstable. Symbiotic stars (i.e., stars with characteristics of both cool giants and very hot stars) also are candidates. Novae, stars that brighten temporarily while ejecting a shell explosively, are definitely not candidates; the nova shell is expanding at hundreds of kilometres per second.

The cause of the ejection is the outward force of radiation on the outer layers of red giant stars. The ejection is triggered by a rapid variation in the nuclear luminosity in the interior of the giant, caused by instability in the helium-burning shell. The ejection takes place during more than one phase of the giant’s evolution. Nitrogen-rich nebulae develop during an early episode when convection inside the star carries nitrogen, produced from carbon in a series of nuclear reactions (i.e., the carbon-nitrogen cycle of hydrogen burning), to the surface. A later ejection takes place with an enrichment of both nitrogen and helium, which also is produced by hydrogen burning. A still later phase occurs when convection carries carbon, the product of helium burning, to the surface.