Geometry of river systems

Hydraulic geometry

Hydraulic geometry deals with variation in channel characteristics in relation to variations in discharge. Two sets of variations take place: variations at a particular cross section (at-a-station) and variations along the length of the stream (downstream variations). Characteristics responsive to analysis by hydraulic geometry include width (water-surface width), depth (mean water depth), velocity (mean velocity through the cross section), sediment (usually concentration or transport, or both, of suspended sediment), downstream slope, and channel friction.

Graphs of the values of channel characteristics against values of discharge usually display some scatter or departure from lines of best fit. One main cause is that values on a rising flood often differ from those on a falling flood, partly because of the reduction of flow resistance, and hence the increase in velocity, as sediment-concentration increases on the rising flood. Bed scour and bed fill are also related. Nevertheless, the variations for a given cross section can be expressed as functions of discharge, Q. For instance, width, depth, and velocity are related to discharge by the expressions: w ∝ Q^b, d ∝ Q^f, and v ∝ Q^m, where w, d, v and b, f, m are numerical constants. The sum of the exponents b + f + m = 1, because of the basic relation—namely, that Q = wdv.

Similar functions can be derived for downstream variations, but, for downstream comparisons to be possible, the observed values of discharge and of channel characteristics must be referred to selected frequencies of discharge. When data are plotted on graphs with logarithmic scales for each of two discharge frequencies at an upstream and a downstream station, the four points for each channel characteristic define a parallelogram, whereby the hydraulic geometry of the stream is defined in respect of that characteristic. The values of exponents in the power equations differ considerably from one river to another: those shown here are theoretical optimum values. One common cause of difference is that many gaging stations are located where some channel characteristics are controlled, whether naturally as by rock outcrops or artificially as by bridge abutments. Constraints on variation in width, for instance, are mainly offset by increased variation in depth.

Analyses of downstream variation in channel slope with discharge commonly reveal contrasts between field results and the theoretical optima. The discrepancy is probably due in considerable part to the fact that channel slope can vary in concert with channel efficiency, including channel habit, channel size, and channel form. Many past discussions of stream slope are invalidated by their restriction to the two dimensions of height and distance. In any event, the slopes of many natural channels are influenced by some combination of earth movement, change in baselevel, glacial erosion, glacial deposition, and change of discharge and load characteristics that result from change of climate. Consequently, although natural profiles from stream source to stream mouth suggest a tendency toward a smooth concave-upward form, many actually are irregular. Even without a change of baselevel, degradational tendency, or discharge, a change in channel sinuosity can produce a significant change of channel slope.

A marked downstream lessening of slope does not imply a decrease in velocity at a given frequency of discharge; reduction of slope is accompanied, and offset, by an increase in channel efficiency due mainly to an increase in size. The lower Amazon, with a slope of less than 7.6 centimetres per 1.6 kilometres, flows faster at the bankfull stage than many mountain streams, at 2.4 metres per second. According to the assumptions made, an optimal velocity equation in hydraulic geometry can predict a slight increase, constancy, or a slight decrease in velocity downstream, for a given frequency of discharge. On the Mississippi, velocity at mean discharge (not a set frequency) increases downstream; velocity at the overbank stages of the five-year and 50-year floods is constant downstream. Constant downstream velocity may well be first attained at the bank-full stage. The fact that relationships are highly disturbed at and near waterfalls and other major breaks of slope (the Paraná just below the site of the former Guaíra Falls, for instance, ran at nine to 14 metres per second) has no bearing on the principles of hydraulic geometry, which apply essentially to streams in adjustable channels.

The interrelationships and adjustments among width, depth, width-depth ratio, suspended-sediment concentration, sediment transport, deposition, eddy viscosity, bed roughness, bank roughness, channel roughness, and channel slope in their relation to discharge, both at-a-station and in the downstream direction, plus the tendency at many sections on many streams for variation to occur about some modal value, all encourage the conception of rivers as equilibrium systems. The designation quasi-equilibrium systems is usually used, since not all variances can be simultaneously minimized, and minimization of some variances (e.g., of water surface slope) can only be secured at the expense of maximizing others (e.g., channel depth).

River channel patterns

Distinctive patterns in the plan geometry of streams correspond to distinctive combinations of cross-sectional form, calibre of bed load, downstream slope, and in some cases cross-valley slope, tendency to cut or fill, or position within the system. The full range of pattern has not been identified: it includes straight, meandering, braided, reticulate, anabranching, distributary, and irregular patterns. Although individual patterns are given separate names, the total range constitutes a continuum.