Long-term or average sediment yield
- Related Topics:
- delta
- meander
- streambed
- arroyo
- chute, or Cutoff
It has been estimated that modern sediment loads of the rivers draining to the Atlantic Ocean may be four to five times greater than the prehistoric rates because of the effects of human activity. Even where human impact is large, however, it is possible to recognize several other independent variables that exert a major influence on long-term sediment yield. These variables can be grouped into three main classes: geologic, geomorphic, and climatic-vegetational.
The major geologic influence on sediment yield is through lithology, or the composition and physical properties of rocks and their resistance to weathering and erosion. An easily weathered and eroded shale, siltstone, or poorly cemented sandstone will provide relatively large quantities of sediment, whereas a lava flow, a well-cemented sandstone, or metamorphic and igneous rocks produce negligible quantities of transportable sediment. The highest known sediment yields that have been recorded are produced by the erosion of unconsolidated silts (loess). Loess is readily eroded, especially when the protecting vegetational cover is disturbed, as has happened in the high-sediment-producing areas of western Iowa in the United States and the Huang He basin in China.
In general, sediment yield from drainage systems underlain by granitic rocks is from one-fourth to one-half that of drainage basins underlain by sedimentary rocks. There are exceptions. Limestone, which may be a massive rock, is highly resistant to erosion in arid regions, where mechanical or physical weathering is dominant. It is, however, highly susceptible to chemical weathering, especially solution, in humid regions. Most of the earth material removed from a limestone terrain will be transported as dissolved load, with some suspended load derived from erosion of the residual soil.
Another factor of importance in determining erosion rates is the permeability of earth materials. When soils are permeable, much of the water delivered to the surface infiltrates and does not produce surface runoff, thereby inhibiting surface erosion. This condition is characteristic of very sandy soils. On the other hand, when soil materials are of low permeability (e.g., clayey soils), a greater part of the precipitation runs off on the surface, thereby causing greater erosion and higher sediment yields.
Most drainage areas are composed of more than one rock type. In some areas the sedimentary rocks have been folded, and rocks of different resistance are exposed, with hard rocks forming ridges and mountains and weak rocks forming valleys. The erosional development of such a terrain is complex, and the sediment produced by a drainage basin of this kind will reflect the complex geologic situation, the greater part of the sediment yield being derived from the areas underlain by the rocks that are most susceptible to erosion.
Geomorphic variables
The character of the topography of a drainage basin significantly influences the quantity and type of runoff and sediment yield. The steeper a slope, the greater is the gravitational force acting to remove earth materials from the slope. In fact, the rate of movement of rocks and soil particles is directly related to the sine of the angle of slope inclination.
Steep slopes are readily eroded, and it follows that drainage basins with a great range of relief or steep average slope will produce not only higher sediment yields but coarser sediment. The average slope of a drainage basin can be expressed simply as a ratio of basin relief to basin length. Sediment yields increase exponentially with an increase in this relief-length ratio.
Another important characteristic of a drainage system is the spacing and distribution of drainage channels within the drainage basin. This is referred to as the texture of the topography, and it can be described by a ratio of total channel length to drainage area. This ratio is the drainage density of the system. High drainage density indicates numerous, closely spaced channels that provide an escape route for both runoff and its entrained sediment load.
When relief-length ratio (r), expressing the role of gravity, is combined with drainage density (d), expressing the efficiency of the drainage system, this yields a texture-slope product (rd), a parameter that describes the gross morphology of a drainage system. Hence it is not surprising that it is closely related to sediment yield of small drainage basins of similar geology and land use.
The relation between the texture-slope product and sediment yield is such that a high sediment yield can be expected from basins with a large drainage density and steep slope. For basins with similar relief-length ratios, those with the highest drainage density produce the greater quantity of sediment. In general, however, the basins with the highest drainage density are also those with the steepest slope.
Many geomorphic characteristics can be related to sediment yield, but it can be stated with assurance that the steeper and the better drained the system, the greater will be the quantity of sediment produced per unit area.
The relationship may be used to estimate yield from other drainage basins in the region from which these data were obtained. Similar relations may be developed for other regions when sufficient geomorphic data become available.
In all studies, the sediment yield per unit area has been found to decrease as the size of the drainage basin increases. This reflects the previously discussed downstream decrease in gradient and slope and the increase in area available for temporary storage of sediment. Therefore total sediment yield per unit area invariably is related inversely to drainage area. Several other factors are involved, of course, but the largest drainage basins do not produce the largest quantity of sediment per unit area of drainage basin.
The morphology of a drainage basin is significantly related to sediment yield, but scientists have not yet done sufficient research to enable the prediction of sediment yields from drainage basins in the diverse regions of the world.
It is difficult to separate the influences of climate and vegetation on erosion and sediment yield, because the primary effect of climate on sediment yield is determined by the interaction between vegetation and runoff. This effect is displayed by the contrast between the dissolved load and the suspended load and bed load transported by streams. Dissolved load increases from a negligible amount in arid regions to 60 tons per square kilometre in humid regions, where chemical weathering and groundwater contribution to river flow is greatest. The dense vegetational cover of humid regions retards runoff and aids infiltration, thereby enhancing the effects of chemical decomposition of the rocks and soils to produce soluble material. The available data also show a sharp increase in sediment yield (suspended and bed load) as precipitation increases from low to moderate amounts. In semiarid regions, however, the increase of vegetation density with increased precipitation exerts a significant influence on erosion; and sediment transport and sediment yield decrease as the climate becomes increasingly humid. This relationship can, of course, be significantly modified by human activities. As the previously mentioned effect of urbanization demonstrates, removal of vegetation from the land in humid regions greatly accelerates erosion, and it may increase sediment yield to the maximum expected in semiarid regions.
Average temperature also affects sediment yields. The hotter the climate, the more water is lost to evapotranspiration, and the critical zone where vegetation becomes dominant consequently shifts to areas of higher precipitation.
The effect of vegetational cover on sediment yield has been discussed previously for areas where fires have destroyed much of the cover and catastrophically increased erosion and export of sediment from the system. Additional data on the effect of vegetation on erosion rates reveal that with a 65 percent plant cover little erosion will occur, but as plant cover decreases erosion increases significantly.
Although erosion increases greatly with a decrease in plant cover between 20 and 15 percent, it cannot continue to increase at this high rate. At some point, the maximum rate of erosion of the soil will be achieved. At some value of low-plant-cover density, the influence of vegetation must be negligible; erosion then will be determined only by soil erodibility.
Although average precipitation significantly influences vegetation type and density and the sediment yield, it has been demonstrated that, for a given quantity of annual precipitation, sediment yields will be greatest where highly seasonal (e.g., monsoonal) climatic conditions prevail. Precipitation, when concentrated during a few months of the year, produces large quantities of sediment because of the higher intensity of the precipitation events and the long dry season when vegetational cover is severely weakened by drought.
Climate also plays a role in determining the type of sediment produced by a drainage basin. A study of the type of sediment deposited on the inner continental shelf reveals that the type of sediment (mud, sand, or gravel) is indeed influenced by climate. Mud, for example, is most abundant off shores of high temperature and rainfall, where chemical weathering is important. Gravel is common off areas of both low temperature and rainfall, where mechanical weathering is dominant. Sand is found everywhere, but it is most abundant in areas of moderate climate and in arid areas. Average temperature also may be important where the annual temperature is below the freezing point.
Stanley A. Schumm The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaRivers as agents of landscape evolution
Every landform at the Earth’s surface reflects a particular accommodation between properties of the underlying geologic materials, the type of processes affecting those materials, and the amount of time the processes have been operating. Because landforms are the building blocks of regional landscapes, the character of the local surroundings is ultimately controlled by those factors of geology, process, and time—a conclusion reached in the late 19th century by the noted American geologist and geographer William Morris Davis. In some regions, severe climatic controls cause a particular process agent to become preeminent. Deserts, for example, are often subjected to severe wind action, and the resulting landscape consists of landforms that reflect the dominance of erosional or depositional processes accomplished by the wind. Other landscapes may be related to processes operating beneath the surface. Regions such as Japan or the Cascade Range in the northwestern part of the United States clearly have major topographic components that were produced by repeated volcanic activity. Nevertheless, rivers are by far the most important agents in molding landscapes because their ubiquity ensures that no region of the Earth can be totally devoid of landforms developed by fluvial processes.
Rivers are much more than sluiceways that simply transport water and sediment. They also change a nondescript geologic setting into distinct topographic forms. This happens primarily because movement of sediment-laden water is capable of pronounced erosion, and when transporting energy decreases, landforms are created by the deposition of fluvial sediment. Some fluvial features are entirely erosional, and the form is clearly unrelated to the transportation and deposition of sediment. Other features may be entirely depositional. In these cases, topography is constructed of sediment that buries some underlying surface that existed prior to the introduction of the covering sediment. Realistically, many fluvial features result from some combination of both erosion and deposition, and the pure situations probably represent end members of a continuum of fluvial forms.
Valleys and canyons
River valleys constitute a major portion of the natural surroundings. In rare cases, spectacular valleys are created by tectonic activity. The Jordan River and the Dead Sea, for example, occupy a valley that developed as a fault-bounded trough known as a rift valley. The distinct property of these and other tectonically controlled valleys is that the low topographic zone (valley) existed before the river. Notwithstanding tectonic exceptions, the overwhelming majority of valleys, including canyons and gorges, share a common genetic bond in that their characteristics are the result of river erosion; i.e., rivers create the valleys in which they flow. In most cases, erosion was accomplished by the same river that occupies the valley bottom, although sometimes rivers are diverted from one valley into another by a process known as stream piracy, or stream capture. Piracy of a large river into another valley often creates a situation where the original expansive valley is later occupied by a river that is too small to have created such a large valley. The opposite case also may occur. The implication here is that valley size is directly related to river size, an observation that generally holds true. Exceptions to this rule arise because of capture events during the evolution of a valley and because valley morphology is strongly influenced by variations in the bedrock into which the valley is carved.
A genuine bedrock valley is usually covered by valley-fill deposits that obscure the actual configuration of the valley floor. Therefore, little is known about valley morphology unless drill holes or geophysical techniques are employed to document the buried bedrock-alluvium contact. Where information is available, it suggests that the deepest part of most valleys is not directly beneath the river. Commonly, the influx of load at a tributary junction forces the river to the opposite side of the valley, a phenomenon demonstrated clearly in the upper Mississippi River valley between St. Louis, Missouri, and St. Paul, Minnesota.
Where a valley is devoid of thick deposits and is completely occupied by a river, the bedrock valley floor often develops an asymmetrical configuration such that the deepest part of the valley occurs on the inside of bends. This general rule is not inviolate because the position of incision depends on the amount of load entrained by the river. When sediment load is totally entrained and velocity is high, entrenchment will most likely occur on the inside of the bend. If deposition occurs or sediment cannot be entrained, however, incision will normally be on the outside of the bend. In straight reaches the deepest part of the valley floor is normally associated with an inner channel cut into bedrock. Its position is determined by where the river was at the time that it flowed at the level of the valley floor. Inner channels form as the culmination of a progressive change in erosional features during the initial phase of incision. Scour features gradually coalesce until a distinct channel appears that is able to contain the entire river flow. Inner channels are rarely seen except when exposed during excavation associated with dam construction. Where observed, such channels commonly have a narrow, deep gorgelike shape. For example, at the site of the Prineville Dam in the state of Oregon, the inner channel averages 21 metres wide and as much as 18 metres deep.
