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Assorted References

major reference
- In locomotion: Saltation
  The locomotor pattern of saltation (hopping) is confined mainly to kangaroos, anurans (tailless amphibians), rabbits, and some groups of rodents in the vertebrates and to a number of insect families in the arthropods. All saltatory animals have hind legs that are approximately twice as…
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anurans
- In amphibian: Anurans
  These leaping movements require more complex pectoral and pelvic girdles than that of salamanders. The pectoral girdle is designed to absorb the shock of the anuran as it lands on its forelimbs; an elastic, muscular suspension connecting the pectoral girdle to the skull and vertebral column…
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- In frog and toad: Size range and diversity of structure
  Most frogs move by leaping. The long and powerful hind limbs are straightened rapidly from the crouching position, propelling the frog through the air. Many arboreal frogs—especially members of the families Hylidae, Rhacophoridae, Centrolenidae, and others—have adhesive disks on the ends of the fingers and toes and leap from…
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falconiforms
- In falconiform: Walking and hopping
  On the ground falconiforms progress by walking or hopping; in especially large vultures, hopping is elaborated into bounding threat displays. On a branch they move sideways by sidling or by walking “hand over hand” (e.g., vulturine fish eagle, harrier hawk). On the ground eagles…
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fleas
grasshoppers
- In grasshopper
  …the legs well adapted for leaping. The male can produce a buzzing sound by rubbing toothlike ridges on the hind femurs against a raised vein on each closed front wing.
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mammals

In mammal: Locomotion
Saltatory (leaping) locomotion, sometimes called “ricochetal,” has arisen in several unrelated groups (some marsupials, lagomorphs, and several independent lineages of rodents). This mode of locomotion is typically found in mammals living in open habitats. Jumping mammals typically have elongate, plantigrade hind feet, reduced forelimbs, and long…
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kangaroos
- In kangaroo: Descriptions of selected species
  …a remarkable advantage to bipedal hopping. Although at low speeds kangaroos expend more energy than do quadrupeds of the same size, the red kangaroo (M. rufus) actually uses less energy at 10.1 km/hr than at 6.5 and less still at higher speeds. This seems to be related to the storage…
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primates
- In primate: Four types of locomotion
  Vertical clinging and leaping, for instance, is primarily a function of the hind limbs, as is bipedalism, whereas brachiation is performed exclusively with the forelimbs. Quadrupedalism involves both forelimbs and hind limbs, of course, although not to an equal extent. Some quadrupeds are hind limb-dominated; in others, the…
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