skeleton
- Key People:
- Pierre Belon
- Marcellin Boule
- Related Topics:
- bone
- joint
- human skeleton
- vertebral column
- jaw
skeleton, the supportive framework of an animal body. The skeleton of invertebrates, which may be either external or internal, is composed of a variety of hard nonbony substances. The more complex skeletal system of vertebrates is internal and is composed of several different types of tissues that are known collectively as connective tissues. This designation includes bone and the various fibrous substances that form the joints, connect bone to bone and bone to muscle, enclose muscle bundles, and attach the internal organs to the supporting structure. For a more detailed discussion of the human skeleton, see skeletal system, human.
Comparative study of skeletal systems
In addition to its supportive function, the animal skeleton may provide protection, facilitate movement, and aid in certain sensory functions. Support of the body is achieved in many protozoans by a simple stiff, translucent, nonliving envelope called a pellicle. In nonmoving (sessile) coelenterates, such as coral, whose colonies attain great size, it is achieved by dead structures, both internal and external, which form supporting axes. In the many groups of animals that can move, it is achieved either by external structures known as exoskeletons or by internal structures known as endoskeletons. Many animals remain erect or in their normal resting positions by means of a hydrostatic skeleton—i.e., fluid pressure in a confined space.
The skeleton’s protective function alone may be provided by structures situated on the body surface—e.g., the lateral sclerites of centipedes and the shell (carapace) of crabs. These structures carry no muscle and form part of a protective surface armour. The scales of fish, the projecting spines of echinoderms (e.g., sea urchins), the minute needlelike structures (spicules) of sponges, and the tubes of hydroids, all raised from the body surface, are similary protective. The bones of the vertebrate skull protect the brain. In the more advanced vertebrates and invertebrates, many skeletal structures provide a rigid base for the insertion of muscles as well as providing protection.
The skeleton facilitates movement in a variety of ways, depending on the nature of the animal. The bones of vertebrates and the exoskeletal and endoskeletal units of the cuticle of arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders, crabs) support opposing sets of muscles (i.e., extensors and flexors). In other animal groups the hydrostatic skeleton provides such support.
In a limited number of animals, the hard skeleton transmits vibrations that are sensed by the hearing mechanism. In some forms—e.g., bony fishes and fast-swimming squids—it aids in the formation of buoyancy mechanisms that enable the animal to adjust its specific gravity for traveling at different depths in the sea.
Principal types of skeletal elements
Certain types of skeletons usually characterize particular animal phyla, but there are a limited number of ways in which an animal can form its skeleton. Similar modes of skeleton formation have evolved independently in different groups to fulfill similar needs. The cartilaginous braincase of the octopus and the squid, which are invertebrates, has a microscopic structure similar to the cartilage of vertebrates. The calcareous (i.e., calcium-containing) internal skeleton of the echinoderms is simply constructed but is essentially not far different from the much more elaborate bones of vertebrates. Skeletal fibres of similar chemical composition occur in unrelated animal groups; for example, coiled shells of roughly similar chemical composition are present in gastropods (e.g., snails), brachiopods (e.g., lamp shells), and cephalopods (e.g., chambered nautilus). The mechanical properties of different skeletal types vary considerably according to the needs of animals of particular size ranges or habits (e.g., aquatic, terrestrial).
Skeletal elements are of six principal types: hard structures, semirigid structures, connective tissue, hydrostatic structures, elastic structures, and buoyancy devices.
Cuticular structures
Hard structures may be either internal or external. They may be composed of bone (calcareous or membranous structures that are rigid), crystals, cuticle, or ossicles (i.e., minute plates, rods, or spicules).
The scales of some fishes (e.g., sturgeon) may be heavy, forming a complete external jointed armour; calcareous deposits make them stiff. They grow at their margins, and their outer surfaces become exposed by disintegration of the covering cell layer, epithelium. Other fish scales—i.e., those of most modern bony fishes—are thin, membranous, and flexible.
Calcareous structures
The external shells of gastropods and bivalve mollusks (e.g., clams, scallops) are calcareous, stiff, and almost detached from the body. The laminated, or layered, shell grows by marginal and surface additions on the inner side. Muscles are inserted on part of the shell, and the body of the animal can be withdrawn into the protection of the shell. Chambered calcareous shells formed by cephalopods and by protozoans of the order Foraminifera become so large and so numerous that the broken remains of the shells may constitute a type of sand covering large areas of tropical beaches; the pieces may also consolidate into rock. Protozoans of the order Radiolaria form skeletons of silica in the form of very complicated bars. The body of the animal flows partly inside and partly outside among the bars.
Coral skeletons are also partly inside and partly outside the animal. Calcareous depositions below a young coral polyp (i.e., an individual member of the animal colony) are secreted by the ectoderm (generally, the outermost of three basic tissue layers), fixed to the surface to which the animal is attached, and thrown up into ridges, which form a cup into which the polyp can contract. A spreading of the base and the formation of more polyps on the base are followed by a central humping up of the soft tissue and further secretion of skeleton. An upright branch is thus formed, and, in time, large branching corals many feet high may arise from the seafloor. Most of the soft tissue is then external to an axial calcareous skeleton, but in rapidly growing corals the skeleton is perforate, and soft tissue lies both inside and outside it. Protection of the animal is provided by the skeletal cups into which each polyp can contract, but usually neither the whole colony nor a single animal has mobility.
The starfishes, brittlestars, and crinoids (Echinodermata) have many types of calcareous ossicles in the mesoderm (generally, the tissue layer between the gut and the outermost layer). These form units that articulate with each other along the arms, spines that project from the body covering and articulate with ossicles, and calcareous jaws (in sea urchins). Less well organized calcareous deposits stiffen the body wall between the arms of the starfish.