- Key People:
- Hermann von Helmholtz
- Eric Zepler
- Related Topics:
- sound reception
- musical sound
- ultrasonics
- infrasonics
- loudness
In addition to the geometric decrease in intensity caused by the inverse square law, a small part of a sound wave is lost to the air or other medium through various physical processes. One important process is the direct conduction of the vibration into the medium as heat, caused by the conversion of the coherent molecular motion of the sound wave into incoherent molecular motion in the air or other absorptive material. Another cause is the viscosity of a fluid medium (i.e., a gas or liquid). These two physical causes combine to produce the classical attenuation of a sound wave. This type of attenuation is proportional to the square of the sound wave’s frequency, as expressed in the formula α/f2, where α is the attenuation coefficient of the medium and f is the wave frequency. The amplitude of an attenuated wave is then given by
where Ao is the original amplitude of the wave and A(x) is the amplitude after it has propagated a distance x through the medium.
Table 5 gives sound-absorption coefficients for several gases. The magnitudes of the coefficients indicate that, although attenuation is rather small for audible frequencies, it can become extremely large for high-frequency ultrasonic waves. Attenuation of sound in air also varies with temperature and humidity.
| fluid | attenuation coefficient |
|---|---|
| helium | 52.5 |
| hydrogen | 16.9 |
| nitrogen | 133.0 |
| oxygen | 165.0 |
| air | 137.0 |
| carbon dioxide | 140.0 |
| water, at 0 °C (32 °F) | 0.569 |
| water, at 20 °C (68 °F) | 0.253 |
| water, at 80 °C (176 °F) | 0.079 |
| mercury, at 25 °C (77 °F) | 0.057 |
| methyl alcohol, at 30 °C (86 °F) | 0.302 |
Because less sound is absorbed in solids and liquids than in gases, sounds can propagate over much greater distances in these mediums. For instance, the great range over which certain sea mammals can communicate is made possible partially by the low attenuation of sound in water. In addition, because absorption increases with frequency, it becomes very difficult for ultrasonic waves to penetrate a dense medium. This is a persistent limitation on the development of high-frequency ultrasonic applications.
Most sound-absorbing materials are nonlinear, in that they do not absorb the same fraction of acoustic waves of all frequencies. In architectural acoustics, an enormous effort is expended to use construction materials that absorb undesirable frequencies but reflect desired frequencies. Absorption of undesirable sound, such as that from machines in factories, is critical to the health of workers, and noise control in architectural and industrial acoustics has expanded to become an important field of environmental engineering.
Diffraction
A direct result of Huygens’ wavelets is the property of diffraction, the capacity of sound waves to bend around corners and to spread out after passing through a small hole or slit. If a barrier is placed in the path of half of a plane wave, as shown in , the part of the wave passing just by the barrier will propagate in a series of Huygens’ wavelets, causing the wave to spread into the shadow region behind the barrier. In light waves, wavelengths are very small compared with the size of everyday objects, so that very little diffraction occurs and a relatively clear shadow can be formed. The wavelengths of sound waves, on the other hand, are more nearly equal to the size of everyday objects, so that they readily diffract.
Diffraction of sound is helpful in the case of audio systems, in which sound emanating from loudspeakers spreads out and reflects off of walls to fill a room. It is also the reason why “sound beams” cannot generally be produced like light beams. On the other hand, the ability of a sound wave to diffract decreases as frequency rises and wavelength shrinks. This means that the lower frequencies of a voice bend around a corner more readily than the higher frequencies, giving the diffracted voice a “muffled” sound. Also, because the wavelengths of ultrasonic waves become extremely small at high frequencies, it is possible to create a beam of ultrasound. Ultrasonic beams have become very useful in modern medicine.
The scattering of a sound wave is a reflection of some part of the wave off of an obstacle around which the rest of the wave propagates and diffracts. The way in which the scattering occurs depends upon the relative size of the obstacle and the wavelength of the scattering wave. If the wavelength is large in relation to the obstacle, then the wave will pass by the obstacle virtually unaffected. In this case, the only part of the wave to be scattered will be the tiny part that strikes the obstacle; the rest of the wave, owing to its large wavelength, will diffract around the obstacle in a series of Huygens’ wavelets and remain unaffected. If the wavelength is small in relation to the obstacle, the wave will not diffract strongly, and a shadow will be formed similar to the optical shadow produced by a small light source. In extreme cases, arising primarily with high-frequency ultrasound, the formalism of ray optics often used in lenses and mirrors can be conveniently employed.
If the size of the obstacle is the same order of magnitude as the wavelength, diffraction may occur, and this may result in interference among the diffracted waves. This would create regions of greater and lesser sound intensity, called acoustic shadows, after the wave has propagated past the obstacle. Control of such acoustic shadows becomes important in the acoustics of auditoriums.